The EU’s Short-term Outlook for Agricultural Markets (Autumn 2024) reveals significant challenges in agriculture, with adverse weather, geopolitical instability, and fluctuating trade conditions impacting production. The report identifies declining cereal and oilseed outputs, particularly for soft wheat and maize. Meanwhile, milk production is expected to remain stable despite a shrinking cow herd, and the meat sector shows mixed trends, with poultry production rising but pigmeat and beef facing structural challenges.

Cereals

The EU cereal production in 2024/25 is projected at 260.9 million tons, approximately 7% below the 5-year average. This marks the lowest production in the past decade, driven by unfavorable weather conditions, including excessive rain in Northwestern Europe, which impacted planting, particularly for soft wheat, and drought in Southern and Eastern regions, severely affecting maize yields. Production of soft wheat and maize is expected to decline year-on-year by 9.5% and 4%, respectively. On the other hand, barley and durum wheat production are increasing by about 6% and 3%, respectively, compared to the previous year.

EU cereal exports are projected to decline by 22% year-on-year due to reduced production and quality issues. At the same time, domestic demand remains relatively stable, with animal feed consumption holding steady as livestock production stagnates. In terms of prices, cereal prices fell throughout 2024, pressuring farmers’ cash flow, which could hinder their ability to afford inputs such as fertilizers in the coming year.

Milk and Dairy Products

The EU milk market is expected to see relatively stable supply, despite a continuously shrinking cow herd. Milk yields have increased, compensating for the herd’s decline. Milk prices are forecast to stabilize after a period of volatility in the past few years, remaining above historical averages, and input costs for farmers, such as feed and energy, are showing signs of stabilizing, allowing for a potential improvement in farmer margins.

Despite the stability in milk supply, demand for dairy products continues to show mixed trends, influenced by shifts in consumer preferences and trade dynamics. The balance of milk supply and prices could provide an opportunity for dairy farmers to recover some profitability after several challenging years.

In the dairy products sector, cheese and butter continue to dominate EU production, with butter production projected to rise slightly in 2024, driven by stable milk supplies and strong domestic demand. The demand for butter in the global market remains relatively strong, although competition is rising.

Cheese production is also expected to remain stable, reflecting a balance between domestic and export markets. The cheese sector has seen steady growth over the years, supported by increasing consumer demand for premium and specialty cheeses. The demand for skimmed milk powder (SMP) and whole milk powder (WMP) is projected to remain subdued due to fluctuating global demand, particularly from key markets such as China, although some growth is expected in non-European markets.

Meat Products

The meat sector in the EU remains a mixed picture, with structural changes and external factors shaping production and trade in 2024.

Beef and Veal: Beef production continues to face structural decline due to a shrinking herd size, with the sector stabilizing but at lower levels of production. The demand for EU beef remains relatively high, and exports are increasing, but domestic production is likely to remain constrained by environmental and economic pressures. Additionally, the number of animals has been declining consistently, reflecting longer-term trends within the EU beef industry.

Pigmeat: The EU pigmeat sector is facing diverse challenges, with some countries recovering from production setbacks, while others struggle with ongoing disease outbreaks and economic issues. The overall EU pigmeat production is expected to decline slightly, and exports have become less competitive, particularly with reduced demand from key markets such as China. However, opportunities exist in other Asian countries, where EU exporters are gaining ground. Domestically, consumption is forecast to decrease slightly, reflecting shifting consumer preferences toward plant-based alternatives and poultry.

Poultry: Poultry production is expected to rise, driven by strong domestic demand and favorable export conditions. The EU poultry sector has shown resilience, with increasing production and exports, despite higher input costs. Poultry remains a preferred source of protein for consumers, especially as prices for other meats rise. The sector continues to grow in competitiveness on the international stage, with exports expected to increase in 2024 despite the challenges posed by higher EU prices.

Sheep and Goat Meat: Production of sheep and goat meat continues to decline due to the structural reduction of flocks across the EU. High EU prices have made sheep and goat meat less competitive on the global market, reducing export opportunities. Domestically, consumption remains stable but at lower levels than other meat types. The ongoing structural decline in the sector highlights long-term challenges related to animal health, productivity, and market competitiveness.

Volatility and challenges persist

The report highlights the ongoing challenges faced by the cereals, dairy, and meat sectors. Weather conditions and global trade dynamics are shaping the future of EU agriculture, with many sectors grappling with production declines and shifting market demands. Despite these challenges, opportunities exist for some areas of growth, particularly in dairy and poultry, where rising consumer demand and stable supply conditions offer optimism for the future.

by Dr. Inge Heinzl, Editor EW Nutrition

For optimum health, the content of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) is decisive. On the one hand, they act locally in the gut, on the other hand, they are absorbed via the intestinal mucosa into the organism and can affect the whole body. Newer studies in humans show a connection between the deficiency of SCFAs and the occurrence of chronic diseases such as diabetes type 2 or chronic inflammatory gut diseases.

SCFAs – what are they, and where do they come from?

SCFAs consist of a chain of one to six carbon atoms. They are crucial metabolites primarily generated through the bacterial fermentation of dietary fiber (DF) in the hindgut. However, SCFAs and branched SCFAs can also arise during protein fermentation. Short-chain fatty acids predominantly include acetate, propionate, and butyrate, which together account for over 95% of the total SCFAs, typically in a 60:20:20 ratio.

Acetate is produced in two different ways, via the acetyl-CoA and the Wood-Ljungdahl pathways where Bacteroides spp., Bifidobacterium spp., Ruminococcus spp., Blautia hydrogenotrophica, Clostridium spp. are involved. Additionally, acetogenic bacteria can synthesize acetate from carbon dioxide and formate through the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway (Ragsdale and Pierce, 2021). Acetate counts for more than 50% of the total SCFAs in the colon and is the most abundant one.

Propionate can also be produced in two ways. If it is produced via the succinate pathway involving the decarboxylation of methyl malonyl-CoA, the essential bacteria are Firmicutes and Bacteroides. In the acrylate pathway, lactate is converted to propionate. Here, only some bacteria, such as Veillonellaceae or Lachnospiraceae, participate.

Butyrate is produced from acetyl-CoA via the classical pathway by several Firmicutes. However, also other gut microbiota such as Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, and Thermotogae, which contain essential enzymes (e.g., butyryl coenzyme A dehydrogenase, butyryl-CoA transferase, and butyrate kinase) can be involved. Butyrate can also be produced via the lysine pathway from proteins.

Besides the production of SCFAs from dietary fiber, there is another possibility for the synthesis of SCFAs as well as branched SCFAs – the fermentation of protein in the hindgut. This is something we want to avoid, since it´s clear signal of incorrect animal nutrition. It tells us that there is either oversupply of protein or decrease in protein digestion and absorption.

Which roles do SCFAs play?

SCFAs play a crucial role in the maintenance of gut health. Some benefits originate from these substances’ general character, while others are specific to one acid. If we talk about the benefits of all SCFAs, we can mention the following:

1. Primarily, SCFAs are absorbed by the intestine and serve enterocytes as an essential substrate for energy production.
2. By lowering the pH in the intestine, SCFAs inhibit the invasion and colonization of pathogens.
3. SCFAs can cross bacterial membranes in their undissociated form. Inside the bacterial cell, they dissociate, resulting in a higher anion concentration and bactericidal effect (Van der Wielen et al., 2000)
4. SCFAs repair the intestinal mucosa
5. They mitigate intestinal inflammation by G protein-coupled receptors (GPRs).
6. They enhance immune response by producing cytokines such as IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α in the immune cells. Furthermore, they enhance the differentiation of T-cells into T regulatory cells (Tregs) and bind to receptors (Toll-like receptor, G protein-coupled receptors) on immune cells (Liu et al., 2021).
7. SCFAs are involved in the modulation of some processes in the gastrointestinal tract, such as electrolyte and water absorption (Vinolo et al., 2011)

After seeing the general characteristics of short-chain fatty acids, let us take a closer look at the specialties of the single SCFAs.

Acetate might play a crucial role in the competitive process between enteropathogens and bifidobacteria and help to build a balanced gut microbial environment (Liu et al., 2021). Additionally, acetate promotes lipogenesis in adipocytes (Liu et al., 2022).

Concerning general health, acetate inhibits, e.g., lung inflammatory response and the reduced air-blood permeability induced by avian pathogenic E. coli-caused chicken colibacillosis (Peng et al., 2021).

Propionate is thought to be involved in controlling intestinal inflammation by regulating the immune cells assisting and, consequently, in maintaining the gut barrier. Furthermore, propionate regulates appetite, controls blood glucose, and inhibits fat deposition in broiler chickens (Li et al., 2021).

In a trial conducted by Elsherif et al. (2022), birds fed a diet with 1.5 g sodium propionate/kg showed considerably (P<0.05) longer and wider guts, higher counts of lactobacillus(P<0.05) and no colonization of Clostridium perfringens. The immunological state improved significantly (P<0.05), which could be seen by the higher antibody titers when the birds were vaccinated against Newcastle disease or avian influenza.

Butyrate additionally improves the function of the intestinal barrier by regulating the assembly of tight junctions (Peng et al., 2009) and stimulating cell renewal and differentiation of the enterocytes. Butyrate-producing microbes on their side prevent the dysbiotic expansion of potentially pathogenic E. coli and Salmonella (Byndloss et al., 2017; Cevallos et al., 2021) by stimulating PPAR-γ signaling. This leads to the suppression of iNOS synthesis and a significant reduction of iNOS and nitrate in the colonic lumen. Furthermore, the microbiota-induced PPAR-γ-signaling inhibits dysbiotic Enterobacteriaceae expansion by limiting the bioavailability of oxygen and, therefore, respiratory electron acceptors to Enterobacteriaceae in the colon.

In a trial conducted by Xiao et al. (2023), sodium butyrate enhanced broiler breeders’ reproductive performance and egg quality due to the regulation of the maternal intestinal barrier and gut microbiota. Additionally, it improved the antioxidant capacity and immune function of the breeder hens and their offspring.

SCFAs’ production can be managed

The extent of production depends on the diet and the composition of the intestinal flora. Nutritional strategies can be taken to regulate the production of short-chain fatty acids by providing dietary fiber and prebiotics, the respective bacteria but also additives in the diet or, on the other, negative way, use of antibiotics.

One example of SCFA-promoting additives is phytomolecules. Ventar D, a blend of diverse gut health-promoting phytomolecules, shows its SCFAs-increasing effect in a trial with Ross 308 broilers.

Trial design: The 41-day research study was conducted at an R&D farm in Turkey, with 3200 Ross 308 broilers in total. The day-old broiler chicks were randomly divided into two groups with 8 replicates in 16-floor pens (6.5×2 m each), each of 200 chicks (100 males and 100 females). One group was managed as a control group with regular feed formulation, and the other group was supplemented with Ventar D. All the birds were provided feeds and water ad libitum. Temperature, lighting, and ventilation were managed as per Ross 308 recommendation.

Groups	Application dose
	Starter (crumbles)	Grower & Finisher – 1 & 2 (pellet)
Control	No additive
Ventar D	100 gm/MT	100 gm/MT

All the birds and feed were weighed on days 0, 11, 23, and 41. Dead birds were also weighed, and the feed consumption was corrected accordingly. At the end of the experiment, one male and one female chicken close to the average weight of each pen were separated, weighed, and slaughtered. Short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) concentration in the caecum was measured by gas chromatography (Zhang et al. 2003). Statistical analysis of the data obtained in this study was carried out in the Minitab 18 program using the T-test following the randomized block trial design (P ≤ 0.05). The research results were subjected to statistical analysis on a pen basis. Mortality results were evaluated with the Chi-square test.

Results: Ventar D significantly increased the levels of acetate, butyrate, and total SCFAs. The level of propionate was numerically higher. Additionally, higher final body weights (on average 160 g), improved feed efficiency (6 points), a higher EPEF (33 points), and lower mortality (0.5%) could be asserted in this experiment.

One explanation could be the microbiota-balancing effect of Ventar D. Meimandipour et al. (2010), for example, saw in their study that increased colonization of Lactobacillus salivarius and Lactobacillus agilis in cecum significantly increased propionate and butyrate formation in caeca.

Phytomolecules: Balancing intestinal microbiome and increasing healthy SCFAs

By promoting beneficial intestinal bacteria and fighting the harmful ones, phytomolecules drive the microbiome in the right direction and promote the production of short-chain fatty acids. Their gut health-protecting effect, in turn, provides for adequate digestion and absorption of nutrients, leading to optimal feed conversion and growth rates. The support of the immune system and the promotion of the antioxidant capacity additionally enhance the health of the animals. Healthy animals grow better, which ultimately leads to a higher profit for the farm.

References:

Byndloss, Mariana X., Erin E. Olsan, Fabian Rivera-Chávez, Connor R. Tiffany, Stephanie A. Cevallos, Kristen L. Lokken, Teresa P. Torres, et al. “Microbiota-Activated PPAR-γ Signaling Inhibits Dysbiotic Enterobacteriaceae Expansion.” Science 357, no. 6351 (August 11, 2017): 570–75. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aam9949.

Cevallos, Stephanie A., Jee-Yon Lee, Eric M. Velazquez, Nora J. Foegeding, Catherine D. Shelton, Connor R. Tiffany, Beau H. Parry, et al. “5-Aminosalicylic Acid Ameliorates Colitis and Checks Dysbiotic Escherichia Coli Expansion by Activating PPAR-γ Signaling in the Intestinal Epithelium.” mBio 12, no. 1 (February 23, 2021). https://doi.org/10.1128/mbio.03227-20.

Elsherif, Hany M.R., Ahmed Orabi, Hussein M.A. Hassan, and Ahmed Samy. “Sodium Formate, Acetate, and Propionate as Effective Feed Additives in Broiler Diets to Enhance Productive Performance, Blood Biochemical, Immunological Status, and Gut Integrity.” Advances in Animal and Veterinary Sciences 10, no. 6 (June 2022): 1414–22.

Li, Haifang, Liqin Zhao, Shuang Liu, Zhihao Zhang, Xiaojuan Wang, and Hai Lin. “Propionate Inhibits Fat Deposition via Affecting Feed Intake and Modulating Gut Microbiota in Broilers.” Poultry Science 100, no. 1 (January 2021): 235–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2020.10.009.

Liu, Lixuan, Qingqing Li, Yajin Yang, and Aiwei Guo. “Biological Function of Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Its Regulation on Intestinal Health of Poultry.” Frontiers in Veterinary Science 8 (October 18, 2021). https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.736739.

Liu, Lixuan, Qingqing Li, Yajin Yang, and Aiwei Guo. “Biological Function of Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Its Regulation on Intestinal Health of Poultry.” Frontiers in Veterinary Science 8 (October 18, 2021). https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.736739.

Meimandipour, A., M. Shuhaimi, A.F. Soleimani, K. Azhar, M. Hair-Bejo, B.M. Kabeir, A. Javanmard, O. Muhammad Anas, and A.M. Yazid. “Selected Microbial Groups and Short-Chain Fatty Acids Profile in a Simulated Chicken Cecum Supplemented with Two Strains of Lactobacillus.” Poultry Science 89, no. 3 (March 2010): 470–76. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2009-00495.

Peng, Lu-Yuan, Hai-Tao Shi, Zi-Xuan Gong, Peng-Fei Yi, Bo Tang, Hai-Qing Shen, and Ben-Dong Fu. “Protective Effects of Gut Microbiota and Gut Microbiota-Derived Acetate on Chicken Colibacillosis Induced by Avian Pathogenic Escherichia Coli.” Veterinary Microbiology 261 (October 2021): 109187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2021.109187.

Peng, Luying, Zhong-Rong Li, Robert S. Green, Ian R. Holzmanr, and Jing Lin. “Butyrate Enhances the Intestinal Barrier by Facilitating Tight Junction Assembly via Activation of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase in Caco-2 Cell Monolayers.” The Journal of Nutrition 139, no. 9 (September 2009): 1619–25. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.109.104638.

Ragsdale, Stephen W., and Elizabeth Pierce. “Acetogenesis and the Wood–Ljungdahl Pathway of CO2 Fixation.” Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – Proteins and Proteomics 1784, no. 12 (December 2008): 1873–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbapap.2008.08.012.

Vinolo, Marco A.R., Hosana G. Rodrigues, Renato T. Nachbar, and Rui Curi. “Regulation of Inflammation by Short Chain Fatty Acids.” Nutrients 3, no. 10 (October 14, 2011): 858–76. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu3100858.

Wielen, Paul W. van der, Steef Biesterveld, Servé Notermans, Harm Hofstra, Bert A. Urlings, and Frans van Knapen. “Role of Volatile Fatty Acids in Development of the Cecal Microflora in Broiler Chickens during Growth.” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66, no. 6 (June 2000): 2536–40. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.66.6.2536-2540.2000.

Xiao, Chuanpi, Li Zhang, Bo Zhang, Linglian Kong, Xue Pan, Tim Goossens, and Zhigang Song. “Dietary Sodium Butyrate Improves Female Broiler Breeder Performance and Offspring Immune Function by Enhancing Maternal Intestinal Barrier and Microbiota.” Poultry Science 102, no. 6 (June 2023): 102658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2023.102658.

by Ilinca Anghelescu, Global Director Marketing Communications, EW Nutrition

 

As the global demand for animal products continues to rise, so do various claims about the impact of agriculture on greenhouse gas emissions. A study commissioned by the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) concluded that, according to the most recent data, agri-food system emissions totaled 16.5 billion metric tons of CO₂ equivalent, representing 31% of global anthropogenic emissions.

Of these 31%, the most important trend highlighted by FAO was the “increasingly important role of food-related emissions generated outside of agricultural land, in pre- and post-production processes along food supply chains”. The food supply chain (food processing, packaging, transport, household consumption and waste disposal) is thus set to become the top GHG emitter, above farming and land use.

How bad is 31%?

While 31% is a large figure, even this estimate represents a significant decrease from the 1950s, when agri-food emissions constituted approximately 58% of total anthropogenic emissions: “From 1850 until around 1950, anthropogenic CO2 emissions were mainly (>50%) from land use, land-use change and forestry”, states the latest IPCC report.

Figure 1. Source: IPCC AR6 Report, 2023. LULUCF = Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry

As the IPCC graph in Figure 1 indicates, the percentage decrease is mostly due to the rising prevalence of oil and coal in CO₂ emissions over the recent decades, as shown in Figure 2 below.

Annual greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions worldwide from 1990 to 2022, by sector (in million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent)

Figure 2. Source: Statista

Total population and agri-food emission changes, 1950 – today

The global population increased by approximately 220%, from 2.5 billion in 1950 to 8 billion in 2023. In the meantime, estimates suggest that, in the 1950s, agri-food systems were responsible for approximately 2-3 billion metric tons of CO₂-equivalent (CO₂e) emissions per year. This figure includes emissions from livestock, rice paddies, fertilizer use, and land-use change (e.g., deforestation for agriculture).

Assessments generally agree that today’s agri-food systems contribute approximately 9-10 billion metric tons of CO₂e annually, a threefold increase from 1950. This includes emissions from agriculture (e.g., livestock, crop production), food processing, transportation, and land-use changes.

This increase is consistent with FAO’s new findings, of food chain climbing to the top of agri-food emitters.

But where did these increased emissions come from?

A look at the graph below gives us an indication: world poverty rate decreased massively between 1950 and today. While COVID brought a setback, the historical data would clearly indicate a correlation between the increased output in agri-food systems and the decreased rate of poverty.

How did poverty rates decline so steeply? The reasons lie, to a large extent, in technological innovation, especially in genetics and farm management, and in the increased apport of plentiful and affordable meat protein to the world. The numbers below build an image of an industry that produces better, more, and cheaper.

Global meat production: 1950 vs. Present

Then…

In 1950, the estimated total meat production was of approximately 45 million metric tons.

Key Producers: The United States, Europe, and the Soviet Union were the primary producers of meat.
Types of Meat: Production was largely dominated by beef and pork, with poultry being less significant.

…and now

Now, the total meat production lies somewhere around 357 million metric tons (as of recent data from FAO)., representing a 53% increase from 2000 and a staggering 690% increase from 1950.

Key Producers: Major producers include China, the United States, Brazil, and the European Union.
Types of Meat: Significant increases in poultry production, with pork remaining a leading source of meat, especially in Asia. Beef production has also increased, but at a slower rate than poultry and pork.

Factors contributing to increased meat production

Population Growth: The world population has grown from approximately 2.5 billion in 1950 to over 8 billion today, driving increased demand for meat.

Economic Growth and Urbanization: Rising incomes and urbanization have led to shifts in economic power and dietary preferences, with more people consuming higher quantities of meat, especially in developing countries.

Technological Advancements: Improvements in animal breeding, feed efficiency, and production systems have increased the efficiency and output of meat production.

Intensification of Livestock Production: The shift from extensive to intensive livestock production systems has allowed for higher meat yields per animal.

Global Trade: Expansion of global trade in meat and meat products has facilitated the growth of production in countries with comparative advantages in livestock farming.

Livestock yield increase, 1950 to the present

The increase in livestock yield for cattle, pigs, and chickens between 1950 and the present has been significant due to advances in breeding, nutrition, management practices, and technology.

Beef

1950s

• Average Carcass Weight: In the 1950s, the average carcass weight of beef cattle was about 200 to 250 kilograms (440 to 550 pounds).
• Dressing Percentage: The dressing percentage (the proportion of live weight that becomes carcass) was typically around 50-55%.

Present Day

• Average Carcass Weight: Today, the average carcass weight of beef cattle is approximately 300 to 400 kilograms (660 to 880 pounds).
• Dressing Percentage: The dressing percentage has improved to about 60-65%.

Increase in Beef Cattle Yield

• Increase in Carcass Weight: The average carcass weight has increased by about 100 to 150 kilograms (220 to 330 pounds) per animal.
• Improved Dressing Percentage: The dressing percentage has increased by about 5-10 percentage points, meaning a greater proportion of the live weight is converted into meat.

Dairy

1950s

• Average Milk Yield per Cow: Approximately 2,000 to 3,000 liters per year, depending on the region.

Present Day

• Average Milk Yield per Cow: Approximately 8,000 to 10,000 liters per year globally, with some countries like the United States achieving even higher averages of 10,000 to 12,000 liters per year.

Increase in Milk Yield:: Milk yield per cow has increased about 4-5 times due to genetic selection, improved nutrition, technological advancements, and better herd management.

Chickens (Layers)

1950s

• Average Egg Production per Hen: In the 1950s, a typical laying hen produced about 150 to 200 eggs per year.

Present Day

• Average Egg Production per Hen: Today, a typical laying hen produces approximately 280 to 320 eggs per year, with some high-performing breeds producing even more.

Increase in Egg Yield: The average egg production per hen has increased by approximately 130 to 170 eggs per year.

Chickens (Broilers)

1950s

• Average Yield per Bird: In the 1950s, broiler chickens typically reached a market weight of about 1.5 to 2 kilograms (3.3 to 4.4 pounds) over a growth period of 10 to 12 weeks.

Present Day

• Average Yield per Bird: Today, broiler chickens reach a market weight of about 2.5 to 3 kilograms (5.5 to 6.6 pounds) in just 5 to 7 weeks.

Increase in Yield: The average weight of a broiler chicken has increased by approximately 1 to 1.5 kilograms (2.2 to 3.3 pounds) per bird. Additionally, the time to reach market weight has been nearly halved.

Factors contributing to yield increases

Genetic Improvement:

• Selective Breeding: Focused breeding programs have developed chicken strains with rapid growth rates and high feed efficiency, significantly increasing meat yield.

Nutrition:

• Optimized Feed: Advances in poultry nutrition have led to feed formulations that promote faster growth and better health, using balanced diets rich in energy, protein, and essential nutrients.

Management Practices:

• Housing and Environment: Improved housing conditions, including temperature and humidity control, have reduced stress and disease, enhancing growth rates.

Technological Advancements:

• Automation: Automation in feeding, watering, and waste management has improved efficiency and bird health.
• Health Monitoring: Advances in health monitoring and veterinary care have reduced mortality rates and supported faster growth.

Feed Conversion Efficiency:

• Improved Feed Conversion Ratios (FCR): The amount of feed required to produce a unit of meat has decreased significantly, making production more efficient.

Why Feed Conversion Ratio is a sustainability metric

Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) is a critical metric in livestock production that measures the efficiency with which animals convert feed into body mass. It is expressed as the amount of feed required to produce a unit of meat, milk, or eggs. Advances in nutrition and precision feeding allow producers to tailor diets that optimize FCR, reducing waste and improving nutrient uptake. Also, breeding programs focused on improving FCR can lead to livestock that naturally convert feed more efficiently, supporting long-term sustainability.

Poultry (Broilers): From the 1950s, improved from approximately 4.75 kg/kg to 1.7 kg/kg.

Pigs: From the 1950s, improved from about 4.5 kg/kg to 2.75 kg/kg.

Cattle (Beef): From the 1950s, improved from around 7.5 kg/kg to 6.0 kg/kg.

Figure 4. Evolution of FCR from 1950

FCR is crucial for livestock sustainability for several reasons, as shown below.

1. Resource efficiency

– Feed Costs: Feed is one of the largest operational costs in livestock production. A lower FCR means less feed is needed to produce the same amount of animal product, reducing costs and improving profitability.

– Land Use: Efficient feed conversion reduces the demand for land needed to grow feed crops, helping to preserve natural ecosystems and decrease deforestation pressures.

– Water Use: Producing less feed per unit of animal product reduces the water needed for crop irrigation, which is crucial in regions facing water scarcity.

2. Environmental impact

– Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Livestock production is a significant source of greenhouse gases (GHGs), particularly methane from ruminants and nitrous oxide from manure management. Improved FCR means fewer animals are needed to meet production goals, reducing total emissions.

– Nutrient Runoff: Efficient feed use minimizes excess nutrients that can lead to water pollution through runoff and eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems.

3. Animal welfare

– Health and Growth: Optimizing FCR often involves improving animal health and growth rates, which can lead to better welfare outcomes. Healthy animals grow more efficiently and are less susceptible to disease.

4. Economic viability

– Competitiveness: Lowering FCR improves the economic viability of livestock operations by reducing input costs and increasing competitiveness in the global market.

Livestock emissions

Livestock emissions can be direct (farm-gate) or indirect (land use). Pre- and post-production emissions are considered separately, since they refer to emissions from manufacturing, processing, packaging, transport, retail, household consumption, and waste disposal.

Farm-gate emissions

Global farm-gate emissions (related to the production of crops and livestock) grew by 14% between 2000 and 2021, to 7.8 Gt CO2 eq, see below. 53% come from livestock-related activities, and the emissions from enteric fermentation generated in the digestive system of ruminant livestock were alone responsible for 37 percent of agricultural emissions (FAOSTAT 2023).

Land use for livestock

Land use emissions contribute a large share to agricultural emissions overall, especially through deforestation (~74% of land-use GHG emissions). The numbers have declined in recent years, to a total of 21% reduction between 2000 and 2018.

The other side of the coin is represented by the increased land usage for livestock, either directly for grazing or indirectly for feed crops.

1. Pasture and grazing land

1950: Approximately 3.2 billion hectares (7.9 billion acres) were used as permanent pastures.

Present: The area has increased to around 3.5 billion hectares (8.6 billion acres).

Change: An increase of about 0.3 billion hectares (0.7 billion acres).

2. Land for Feed Crops

1950: The land area dedicated to growing feed crops (such as corn and soy) was significantly less than today due to lower livestock production intensities and smaller scale operations. Feed crops likely accounted for about 200-250 million hectares of the cropland, although figures are evidently difficult to estimate.

Present: Of the approx. 5 billion hectares of land globally used for agriculture, about 1.5 billion hectares are dedicated to cropland.

The increase in cropland hectares is a direct consequence of the intensification of demand for livestock production. To keep these numbers in check, it is essential that producers strive to use as little feed as possible for as much meat yield as possible – and this directly relates to a key metric of the feed additive industry: Feed Conversion Ratio, mentioned above.

The role of food loss in livestock sustainability

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations defines food loss as the decrease in quantity or quality of food resulting from decisions and actions by food suppliers in the chain, excluding retail, food service providers, and consumers. Food loss specifically refers to food that gets spilled, spoiled, or lost before it reaches the consumer stage, primarily taking place during production, post-harvest, processing, and distribution stages.

Food loss is currently estimated to be relatively stable over the last decades, at around 13%.

Key aspects of food loss

1. Stages of Food Loss:
   • Production: Losses that occur during agricultural production, including damage by pests or diseases and inefficiencies in harvesting techniques.
   • Post-Harvest Handling and Storage: Losses that happen due to inadequate storage facilities, poor handling practices, and lack of proper cooling or processing facilities.
   • Processing: Losses during the processing stage, which may include inefficient processing techniques, contamination, or mechanical damage.
   • Distribution: Losses that occur during transportation and distribution due to poor infrastructure, inadequate packaging, and logistical inefficiencies.
2. Quality and Quantity:
   • Quality Loss: Refers to the reduction in the quality of food, affecting its nutritional value, taste, or safety, which may not necessarily reduce its quantity.
   • Quantity Loss: Refers to the actual reduction in the amount of food available for consumption due to physical losses.
3. Exclusions:
   • Retail and Consumer Level: Food loss does not include food waste at the retail or consumer levels, which is categorized as food waste. Food waste refers to the discarding of food that is still fit for consumption by retailers or consumers.

Importance of reducing food loss

Every step along the production chain, each action taken to preserve feed, increase yield, ensure stable and high meat quality, can contribute to reducing food loss and ensuring that animal protein production stays sustainable and feeds the world more efficiently.

• Food Security: Reducing food loss can help improve food availability and access, particularly in regions where food scarcity is a concern. Where we thought we were on our way to eradicate world hunger, recent upticks in several regions show us that progress is not a given.
• Economic Efficiency: Minimizing food loss can improve the efficiency and profitability of food supply chains by maximizing the utilization of resources.
• Environmental Impact: Reducing food loss helps to decrease the environmental footprint of food production by lowering greenhouse gas emissions and minimizing land and water use. This is all the more important in regions where world hunger shows signs of going up. Perhaps not by coincidence are these regions some of the most affected by climate change.

By understanding and addressing the causes of food loss, stakeholders across the food supply chain can work towards more sustainable and efficient food systems.

What’s next?

Improving production practices and technology

Investment in research and development of new technologies that enhance livestock production efficiency and reduce environmental impact is vital for the future sustainability of the sector.

India is a good illustration of room to grow. If we look at cow milk alone, India, with a headcount of approximately 61 million animals, has a total milk production that is neck-and-neck with the United States, whose dairy cow headcount is in the neighborhood of 9.3 million. India’s milk yield sits around 1,600 liters/animal/year, compared to the US’s average of 10,700 liters.

Optimizing Feed Efficiency

Continued focus on improving FCR through genetic selection, optimized nutrition, and advanced management practices will be crucial for reducing the environmental footprint of livestock production.

Promoting Sustainable Land Use

Strategies to balance the need for increased livestock production with sustainable land use practices are essential. This includes adopting agroecological approaches and improving the efficiency of feed crop production.

Reducing Food Loss

Stakeholders across the food supply chain must prioritize reducing food loss through improved storage, transportation, and processing technologies. This will help ensure that livestock production contributes effectively to global food security.

Enhancing Emission Tracking and Reporting

There is a need for standardized methods for collecting and reporting data on GHG emissions in agriculture. This will enable more accurate assessments and the development of targeted strategies for emission reductions.

References

Bell, D. D. (2002). Laying hens in the U.S. market: An appraisal of trends from the beginning of the 20th century to present. Poultry Science, 81(5), 485-490. https://doi.org/10.1093/ps/81.5.485

CarbonWise. (2023). Global greenhouse gas emissions by sector. Retrieved from https://carbonwise.co/global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-by-sector/

Crippa, M., Solazzo, E., Guizzardi, D., Monforti-Ferrario, F., Tubiello, F. N., Leip, A., … & Janssens-Maenhout, G. (2022). Greenhouse gas emissions from food systems: building the global food system emissions database (GFED). Earth System Science Data, 14(4), 1795-1821. https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/14/1795/2022/essd-14-1795-2022.pdf

European Environment Agency (EEA). (2023). Improving the climate impact of raw material sourcing. Retrieved from https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/improving-the-climate-impact-of-raw-material-sourcing

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (2021). The State of Food and Agriculture 2021: Making agrifood systems more resilient to shocks and stresses. FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/6e04f2b4-82fc-4740-8cd5-9b66f5335239/content

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (2021). Food Loss and Waste Database. FAO. https://www.fao.org/platform-food-loss-waste/food-loss/introduction/en

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (2021). Greenhouse gas emissions from agrifood systems. Retrieved from https://www.fao.org/platform-food-loss-waste/food-loss/introduction/en

Goldewijk, K. K., & Verburg, P. H. (2013). Per-capita estimations of long-term historical land use and the consequences for global change research. Global Environmental Change, 23(4), 1166-1175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.04.001

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2023). AR6 Synthesis Report: Climate Change 2023. IPCC. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/

Kusuma, A. B., Laga, W. R., & Purnomo, H. (2022). Climate Change and Livestock Farming: Strategies for Mitigation and Adaptation. MDPI, 12(10), 1554. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/12/10/1554

Matthews, D. (2023). Chicken, meat, and the future of global food: Forecasts and predictions for beef, pork, and more. Vox. https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2023/8/4/23818952/chicken-meat-forecast-predictions-beef-pork-oecd-fao?mc_cid=d1a37e53b6&mc_eid=1b5c5e908a

Our World in Data. (2020). Milk yields per animal. Retrieved from https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/milk-yields-per-animal

Our World in Data. (2023). Grazing land use over the long-term, 1600 to 2023. Retrieved from https://ourworldindata.org/grazing-land-use-over-the-long-term

Ritchie, H., & Roser, M. (2020). Food greenhouse gas emissions. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/food-ghg-emissions

Roche, J. R., Friggens, N. C., Kay, J. K., Fisher, M. W., Stafford, K. J., & Berry, D. P. (2013). Invited review: Body condition score and its association with dairy cow productivity, health, and welfare. Animal Frontiers, 3(4), 23-29. https://doi.org/10.2527/af.2013-0032

Sharma, V. P., & Gulati, A. (2020). Changes in Herd Composition a Key to Indian Dairy Production. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Economic Research Service. https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details/?pubid=99794

The Last Glaciers. (2023). Decarbonizing Food and Agriculture. Retrieved from https://thelastglaciers.com/decarbonising-food-and-agriculture/

Thoma, G., Jolliet, O., & Wang, Y. (2016). National Pork Board. (2016). Greenhouse gas emissions and the potential for mitigation from the pork industry in the U.S. Retrieved from https://www.porkcheckoff.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/16-214-THOMA-final-rpt.pdf

Thornton, P. K., & Herrero, M. (2015). Impacts of climate change on the livestock food supply chain; a review of the evidence. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 2, 93. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4686767/

USDA – National Agricultural Statistics Service. (n.d.). Trends in U.S. Agriculture – Broiler Industry. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Retrieved from https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/Trends_in_U.S._Agriculture/Broiler_Industry/

Zuidhof, M. J., Schneider, B. L., Carney, V. L., Korver, D. R., & Robinson, F. E. (2014). Evolution of the modern broiler and feed efficiency. Annual Review of Animal Biosciences, 2(1), 47-71. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-animal-022513-114132

 

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a significant threat to global health, driven by the overuse and misuse of antibiotics in both human medicine and livestock farming. In livestock farming, antimicrobials are still used extensively for therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. However, estimates of the quantities used per species are notoriously hard to derive from fragmented, incomplete, or unstandardized data around the world.

A recent article (“Global antimicrobial use in livestock farming: an estimate for cattle, chickens, and pigs”, Animal, 18(2), 2024) attempts to update the figures by estimating global biomass at treatment of cattle, pigs, and chickens, considering distinct weight categories for each species in biomass calculation, and using the European Medicines Agency’s weight standards for the animal categories. With these more refined calculations, authors Zahra Ardakani, Maurizio Aragrande, and Massino Canali aim to provide a more accurate estimate of global antimicrobial use (AMU) in cattle, chickens, and pigs. Understanding these patterns is crucial for addressing AMR and developing strategies for sustainable livestock management.

Key Findings

The study estimates that the global annual AMU for cattle, chickens, and pigs amounts to 76,060 tons of antimicrobial active ingredients. This is a significant revision from previous estimates due to a more detailed evaluation of animal weights and categories:

1. Cattle: 40,697 tons (53.5% of total AMU)
2. Pigs: 31,120 tons (40.9% of total AMU)
3. Chickens: 4,243 tons (5.6% of total AMU)

Methodology

The study utilizes the concept of Population Correction Units (PCU) to estimate antimicrobial usage, taking into account the weight and category of livestock at the time of treatment. This method differs from previous approaches that relied on live weight at slaughter, providing a more accurate representation of AMU.

The PCU is calculated by multiplying the number of animals by their average weight during treatment. This approach allows for differentiation by age and sex, which is particularly important for species like cattle and pigs.

Figure 2: (a) Changes in global PCU (million tonnes), (b) changes in global antibiotic use in mg per PCU, and (c) changes in global AMU (thousand tonnes) for cattle, chickens, and pigs; between 2010 and 2020.  Abbreviations: PCU = Population Correction Unit; AMU = Antibiotic Use.

Study shows lower AMU than previous estimates

The study highlights a significant shift in AMU patterns, with chickens showing a remarkable decrease in antimicrobial use despite increased production. This is indicative of improved management and more responsible use of antibiotics in the poultry industry.

The lower AMU in cattle and pigs, compared to previous estimates, underscores the importance of considering animal age and weight at treatment. These findings align closely with World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) estimates, validating the methodology.

However, the study also acknowledges limitations, including reliance on European standards for average weight at treatment, which may not reflect global variations. Additionally, the lack of comprehensive global data on veterinary antibiotics presents challenges in creating fully accurate estimates.

Corrected estimate highlights improved production advances

This study provides a revised and potentially more accurate estimate of global antimicrobial use in livestock. By accounting for the weight and treatment categories of animals, it offers insights that could guide policy and management practices to mitigate the spread of antimicrobial resistance.

The article also indicates that the industry may have over-estimated antimicrobial usage in livestock and, just as importantly, that antimicrobial use has been kept in check or even reduced, despite increases in farmed animal headcounts. The lower usage is likely due to regulatory oversight and improvements in alternative methods to control and mitigate health challenges.

 

Part 4: Paleness

By Dr. Inge Heinzl, Editor and Marisabel Caballero, Global Technical Manager Poultry

We already showed bad feathering, mouth and beak lesions, bone issues, and foot pad lesions as signs of mycotoxin contamination in the feed, but there is another indicator: paleness. Paleness can signify a low count of red blood cells resulting from blood loss or inadequate production of these cells. Other possibilities are higher bilirubin levels in the blood due to an impaired liver, leading to jaundice or missing pigmentation.

The mycotoxins mainly causing anemia are Aflatoxins, Ochratoxin, DON, and T-2 toxin

Anemia can be diagnosed using parameters such as red blood cell count, hemoglobin levels, and hematocrit/packed cell volume (PCV). Numerous studies have examined the impact of mycotoxins on hematological parameters. They reveal their propensity to affect red blood cell production by impairing the function of the spleen and inducing hematological alterations. On the other hand, anemia can be caused by blood loss. Due to affecting coagulation factors, mycotoxins can lead to internal hemorrhages. The gut wall damage, probably due to secondary infections such as coccidiosis and necrotic enteritis, can entail bloody diarrhea in various animal species.

Impact on the production of blood cells

Low values of blood parameters such as red blood cells, hemoglobin, and hematocrit can result from inadequate production due to impacted production organs. The World Health Organization (WHO, 1990) and European Commission (European Commission, 2001) have identified hematopoietic tissues as targets for necrosis caused by T-2 toxin. Chu (2003) even stated that “the major lesion of T-2 toxin is its devastating effect on the hematopoietic system in many mammals, including humans”. Pande et al. (2006) suggested that reduced hemoglobin values result from decreased protein synthesis due to mycotoxin contamination, a notion supported by Pronk et al. (2002), who described trichothecenes as potent inhibitors of protein, DNA, and RNA synthesis, particularly affecting tissues with high cell division rates. Additionally, the European Commission (2001) highlighted the sensitivity of red blood cell progenitor cells (in this trial, the cells of mice, rats, and humans) to the toxic effects of T-2 and HT-toxins. DAS also seems to attack the hematopoietic system, as shown in humans (WHO, 1990). A further cause for anemia might be low feed intake or nutrient absorption, which inhibits adequate iron absorption and leads to iron deficiency. In their case report, Bozzo et al. (2023) assumed that renal failure and a resulting impaired excretion capacity caused by OTA might even increase the half-life of the toxins. This would enhance their effects on their target organs, such as the liver and bone marrow, and lead to anemia.

Several studies utilizing different animal species and mycotoxin dosages have been conducted to assess the effects of Aflatoxins, Ochratoxin, and T-2 Toxin on hematological parameters. The following table provides a summary of some of these studies.

Animal species	Dosage	Impact	Reference
T-2 Toxin and other Trichothecenes
Broilers	T-2 – 0, 1, 2, and 4 mg T-2 toxin/kg n=30 per group	Significant reduction in hemoglobin at 1, 2, and 4 ppm; PCV significantly reduced at 4 ppm	Pande et al., 2006
Broilers	T-2 – 0 and 4 mg/kg diet n=60 per group	Decrease in hemoglobin, mean corpuscular volume, and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration	Kubena et al., 1989a
Broilers	4, 16, 50, 100, 300 ppm for seven days n=5-20 chickens per group	Anemia; significant reduction of hematocrit (50 and 100 ppm); survivors had atrophied lymphoid organs and were anemic	Hoerr et al., 1982
Yangzhou goslings	0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 2.0 mg/kg; n=6 per group	Red blood cell count decreased in the 2.0 mg/kg group along with an increase in mean corpuscular hemoglobin (p<0.05) and reduced mean platelet volume (P<0.05)	Gu et al., 2023
Broilers	2 ppm; 32 birds per group	Anemia, as indicated by significantly (P<0.05) lower total erythrocyte count (TEC) values, lower hemoglobin levels, and packed cell volume; additional thrombocytopenia could be the cause of bleeding	Yohannes et al., 2013
DON
Broilers	5 and 15 mg/kg of feed for 42 days	Decrease in erythrocytes, mean corpuscular volume (MCV), and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) at 15 mg/kg; decrease in hematocrit and hemoglobin at both levels of DON.	Riahi, 2021
Piglets	0.6 mg/kg and 2.0 mg/kg	Significant decrease in mean corpuscular volume	Modrá et al., 2013
Broilers	16 mg/kg diet n=60 per group	Significant decrease in mean corpuscular volume	Kubena et al., 1989c
Ochratoxin
Broilers	2 mg/kg diet singly or combined with DAS 6 mg/kg	Reduced mean corpuscular hemoglobin values	Kubena et al., 1994
Broilers	2 mg/kg diet	Significant decrease in hemoglobin, hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration	Kubena et al., 1989b
Aflatoxins
Broilers	2.5 µg/g	Decrease in red blood cell count	Huff et al., 1988
Broilers	≥1.25 µg/g	Significant decrease in hemoglobin and erythrocyte count	Tung et al., 1975
AFB1 + OTA
Laying hens	Natural feed contamination OTA – 31 ± 3.08 µg/kg and AFB1 – 5.6 ± 0.33 µg/kg dry weight	Anemia signs (pale appearance of combs and wattles), evidenced by the discoloration of the content of the femoral medullary cavity.	Bozzo et al., 2023

Table 1: The effects of different mycotoxins on hematological parameters – hematopoiesis

In their meta-analysis, Andretta et al. (2012) reported that the presence of mycotoxins in broiler diets decreased the hematocrit and the hemoglobin concentration by 5% and 15%, and aflatoxin alone decreased the parameters by 6% and 20%.

It should be evident that a simultaneous occurrence of several mycotoxins even aggravates the situation. In an experiment involving Sprague Dawley rats, administering T-2, DON, NIV, ZEA, NEO, and OTB decreased hematocrit and red blood cell counts across all mycotoxins. However, for DON, NIV, ZEN, and OTB, red blood cell values showed partial recovery after 24 hours (Chattopadhyay, 2013). Perhaps the organism learns to cope with the mycotoxins.

The examples show that Trichothecenes, such as T-2 toxin, DON, and others, as well as Ochratoxins and Aflatoxins, impact blood parameters such as hematocrit, hemoglobin, red blood cell count, and mean corpuscular volume. All these changes might lead to paleness of the skin and birds’ feet and combs.

Blood loss caused by bleeding or destruction of erythrocytes

The second possibility for anemia is blood loss due to injuries or lesions. In addition to directly causing hemorrhages, mycotoxins can promote secondary infections such as coccidiosis, which damages the gut and may produce bloody feces.

Parent-Massin (2004) e.g. reports on rapidly progressing coagulation problems after the ingestion of trichothecenes leading to septicemia and massive hemorrhages. Table 2 shows more examples of mycotoxins causing paleness due to blood loss.

Animal species	Dosage	Impact	Reference
T-2 Toxin and other Trichothecenes
Cats	T-2 toxin – 0.06-0.1 mg/kg body weight/day	Bloody feces, hemorrhages	Lutsky et al., 1978
Cats	T-2 toxin – 0.08 mg/kg BW every 48 h until death	Bloody feces	Lutzky and Mor, 1981
Pigeon	DAS in oat, sifting	Emesis and bloody stools	Szathmary (1983)
Calves	0.08, 0.16, 0.32, or 0.6 mg/kg BW per day for 30 days; 1 calf per treatment	Bloody feces at doses ≥0.32 mg/kg BW per day	Pier et al., 1976
Ochratoxin
Rats	Single dosages of 0, 17, or 22 mg/kg BW in 0.1 Mol/L NaHCO3, gavage	Multifocal hemorrhages in many organs	Albassam et al., 1987
DON
Broilers	0, 35, 70, 140, 280, 560, and 1120 mg/kg body weight	Ecchymotic hemorrhages throughout the intestinal tract, liver, and musculature; relationship to hemorrhagic anemia syndrome seems warranted	Huff et al., 1981
Sterigmatocystin (ST)
10-12-day old chicks (93-101 g)	10 and 14 mg/kg BW intraperitoneal	Hemorrhages and foci of necrosis in the liver	Sreemannarayana et al., 1987
Aflatoxins
Broiler chickens	100 µg/kg feed	Hemorrhages in the liver	Abdel-Sattar, 2019
Turkeys	500 and 1000 ppb in the diet	Bloody diarrhea, spleens with hemorrhages, petechial hemorrhages in the small intestine	Giambrone et al., 1984
Broilers	0, 0.625, 1.25, 2.5, 5.0, and 10.0 mg/kg of diet combined with Infectious Bursal Disease	Slight hemorrhages in the skeletal muscles; decreased hematocrit and hemoglobin due to hemolytic anemia.	Chang and Hamilton, 1981
Broilers	0, 1, and 2 mg AFB1/kg of diet	Downregulation of the genes involved in blood coagulation (coagulation factor IX and X) and upregulation of anticoagulant protein C precursor, an inactivator of coagulation factors Va and VIIIa, and antithrombin-III precursor with 2 mg/kg	Yarru, 2009
Pigs	1-4 mg/kg, 4 weeks 0.4-0.8 mg/kg, 10 weeks	Hemorrhages	Henry et al., 2001

Table 2: The effects of different mycotoxins on hematological parameters – blood loss

Poor pigmentation

The fourth reason for paleness can be inadequate pigmentation. According to Hy Line (2021), the so-called pale bird syndrome is characterized by poor skin and egg yolk pigmentation and is caused by reduced absorption of fat and carotenoid pigments in compromised birds. This is also the case when the diets contain pigment supplements. Tyczkowski and Hamilton (1986) observed in their experiment with chickens exposed to doses of 1-8 µg of Aflatoxins/g of diet for three weeks that aflatoxins can cause poor pigmentation in chickens, probably by impairing carotenoids absorption but also transport and deposition. Osborne et al. (1982) asserted that carotenoids were significantly (P<0.05) depressed by 2 ppm ochratoxin as well as by 2.5 ppm aflatoxin in the diet.

Another possibility is oxidative stress due to the mycotoxin challenge. As pigments also serve as antioxidants, they may be expended for this purpose and are no longer available for pigmentation.

Paleness in poultry – a reason to think about mycotoxins

Paleness can have different causes, some of which are influenced by mycotoxins. If your chickens or hens are pale, checking the feed concerning mycotoxins is always recommended. A feed analysis can give information about possible contamination (see our tool MasterRisk).

In the case of contamination, effective products binding the mycotoxins and mitigating the adverse effects of these harmful substances can help protect your birds. As paleness is usually not the only effect of mycotoxins but also a decrease in growth, toxin binders can help maintain the performance of your animals.

References:

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Part 3: Bone disorders and foot pad lesions

By Dr. Inge Heinzl, Editor, and Marisabel Caballero, Global Technical Manager Poultry

 

Bone health is essential for animals and humans. Besides giving structural support, allowing movement, and protecting vital organs, the bones release hormones that are crucial for mineral homeostasis and acid balance and serve as reservoirs of energy and minerals (Guntur & Rosen, 2012; Rath, N.C. & Durairaj, 2022; Suchacki et al., 2017).

Bone disorders and foot pad lesions are considerable challenges in poultry production, especially for fast-growing birds with high final weights. Due to pain, the animals do not move, and dominant, healthy birds may restrict lame birds’ access to feed and water. In consequence, these birds are often culled. Moreover, processing these birds is problematic, and often, they must be discarded or downgraded.

Foot pad lesions, another common issue in poultry production, can also have significant economic implications. On the one hand, pain restricts birds from eating and drinking and reduces weight gain. On the other hand, for many producers, chicken feet constitute a substantial part of the economic value of the bird; therefore, discarding them represents a significant financial loss. Additionally, to push poultry production in the right direction concerning animal health and welfare, a foot pad scoring system at the processing plant is in place in European countries.

Mycotoxins affect bones in different ways

Mycotoxins, depending on their target organs, can have diverse effects on the skeleton of birds. For example, mycotoxins that target the liver can disrupt calcium metabolism, which in turn affects the mineralization of the bones (rickets) and the impairment of chondrocytes can slow down bone growth (e.g., tibial dyschondroplasia). When the kidneys are impacted, urate clearance decreases, plasma uric acid consequently increases, and urate crystals form in the synovial fluid and tendon sheaths of various joints, particularly the hock joints. These examples highlight the complex and varied ways mycotoxins can impact poultry bone health.

Inadequate bone mineralization and strength – Rickets and layer cage fatigue

Sufficient bone mineralization is essential for the stability of the skeleton. Calcium (Ca), Vitamin D, and Phosphorous (P) deficiency leads to inadequate mineralization, weakens the bone, and can cause soft and bent bones or, in the case of layers, cage fatigue – a collapse of the spinal bone- and paralysis. Inadequate bone mineralization can be caused in different ways, among them:

1. Decrease in the availability of the nutrients necessary for mineralization. This can occur if the digestibility of these nutrients deteriorates
2. Impact on the Ca/P ratio—A ratio of 1 – 2:1 is vital for adequate bone development (Loughrill et al., 2016). Mycotoxins can alter absorption and transporters for one or both elements, altering their ratio.
3. Impact on the Vitamin D receptor, affecting its expression or the transporters for Ca and P.

Aflatoxins can impair bone mineralization by different modes of action. An important one is the impairment of the digestibility of Ca and P: Kermanshahi et al. (2007) fed broilers diets with high levels of aflatoxins (0.8 to 1.2 mg AFB1/kg feed) for three weeks, which resulted in a significant reduction of Ca and P digestibility. Other researchers, however, did not find an effect on Ca and P digestibility with lower aflatoxin levels:  Bai et al. (2014) feeding diets contaminated with 96 (starter) and 157 µg Aflatoxins (grower) per kg of feed to broilers and Han et al. (2008) saw no impact on cherry valley ducks with levels of 20 and 40 µg AFB1/kg diet.

Indirectly, a decrease in the availability of Ca and P due to aflatoxin-contaminated feed can be shown by blood or tibia levels of these minerals, as demonstrated by  Zhao et al. (2010): They conducted a trial with broilers, resulting in blood serum levels of Ca and P levels significantly (P<0.05) dropped with feed contaminated with 2 mg/kg of AFB1. Another trial conducted by Bai et al. (2014) showed decreased Ca in the tibia and reduced tibial break strength.

To get more information about the effect of mycotoxins on bone mineralization and the utilization of Ca, P, and Vit. D in animal organisms, Costanzo et al. (2015) challenged osteosarcoma cells with 5 and 50 ppb of aflatoxin B1. They asserted a significant down-modulation of the expression of the Vitamin D receptor. Furthermore, they assumed an interference of AFB1 with the actions of vitamin D on calcium-binding gene expression in the kidney and intestine.  Paneru et al. (2024) could confirm this downregulation of the Vit D receptor and additionally of the Ca and P transporters in broilers with levels of ≥75 ppb AFB1. They also saw a significant reduction in tibial bone ash content at AFB1 levels >230 ppb, a decreased trabecular bone mineral content and density at AFB1 520 ppb, and a reduced bone volume and tissue volume of the cortical bone of the femur at the level of 230 ppb (see Figure 1). They concluded that AFB1 levels of already 230 ppb contribute to bone health issues in broilers.

Figure 1: Increasing doses of AFB1 (<2 ppb – 560 ppb) deteriorate bone quality (Paneru, 2024): Cross-sectional images of femoral metaphysis with increasing AFB1 levels (left to right). The outer cortical bone is shown in light grey, and the inner trabecular bone in blue. Higher levels of AFB1 (T4 and T5) show a disruption of the trabecular bone pattern (less dense blue pattern with thinner and more fragmented bone strands and with wide spaces between the trabecular bone) (shown in white).

All experiments strongly suggest that aflatoxins harm bone homeostasis. Additional liver damage, oxidative stress, and impaired cellular processes can exacerbate bone health issues.

Trichothecenes also negatively impact bone mineralization. Depending on the mycotoxin, they may affect the gut, decreasing the absorption of Ca and P and probably provoking an imbalance in the Ca/P ratio.

For instance, when T-2 toxin was fed to Yangzhou goslings at 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 mg/kg of diet, it decreased the Ca levels (halved at 0.8 mg/kg) and increased the P levels in the blood serum, so the Ca/P ratio decreased from the adequate ratio of 1 – 2 to 0.85, 0.66, and 0.59 (P<0.05) (Gu et al., 2023). The alterations of the Ca and P levels, the resulting decreasing Ca/P ratio, and an additional increase in alkaline phosphatase (ALP) suggest that T-2 toxin negatively impacts Ca absorption, increases ALP, and, therefore, disturbs calcification and bone development.

Other studies show that serum P levels decreased in broilers fed DON-contaminated feed with levels of only 2.5 mg/kg (Keçi et al., 2019). One reason for the lower P level is probably the lower dry matter intake, affecting Ca and P intake. Ca serum level is not typically reduced, which can be explained by the fact that Ca plays many critical physiological roles (e.g., nerve communication, blood coagulation, hormonal regulation), so the body keeps the blood levels by reducing bone mineralization. Another explanation is delivered by Li et al. (2020): After their trial with broilers, they stated that dietary P deficiency is more critical for bone development than Ca deficiency or Ca & P deficiency. The results of the trial conducted by Keçi et al. with DON (see above) were reduced bone mineralization, affected bone density, ash content, and ash density in the femur and tibiotarsus with a stronger impact on the tibiotarsus than on the femur.

In line with trichothecenes effects in Ca and P absorption, Ledoux et al. (1992) suppose that diarrhea caused by intake of fumonisins leads to malabsorption or maldigestion of vitamin D, calcium and phosphorus, having birds with rickets as a secondary effect.

Ochratoxin A (OTA) impairs kidney function, negatively affects vitamin D metabolism, reduces Ca absorption, and contributes to deteriorated bone strength (Devegowda and Ravikiran, 2009). Indications from Huff et al. (1980) show decreased tibia strength after feeding chickens OTA levels of 2, 4, and 8 µ/g, and Duff et al. (1987) report similar results also in turkey poults.

A further mycotoxin possibly contributing to leg weakness is cyclopiazonic acid produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium. This mycotoxin is known for leading to eggs with thin or visibly racked shells, indicating an impairment of calcium metabolism (Devegowda and Ravikiran, 2009). Tran et al. (2023) also showed this fact with multiple mycotoxins.

The co-occurrence of different mycotoxins in the feed – the standard in praxis – increases the risk of leg issues. A trial with broiler chickens conducted by Raju and Devegowda (2000) showed a bone ash-decreasing effect of AFB1 (300 µg/kg), OTA (2 mg/kg), and T-2 toxin (3 mg/kg), fed individually but an incomparable higher effect when fed in combination.

Impairment of bone growth – tibial dyschondroplasia (TD)

In TD, the development of long bones is impaired, and abnormal cartilage development occurs. It is frequent in broilers, with a higher incidence in males than females. It happens when the bone grows, as the soft cartilage tissue is not adequately replaced by hard bone tissue. Some mycotoxins have been related to this condition: According to Sokolović et al. (2008), actively dividing cells such as bone marrow are susceptible to T-2 toxin, including the tibial growth plates, which regulate chondrocyte formation, maturation, and turnover.

T-2 toxin: In a study with primary cultures of chicken tibial growth plate chondrocytes (GPCs) and three different concentrations of T-2 toxin (5, 50, and 500 nM), He et al. (2011) found that T-2 toxin decreased cell viability, alkaline phosphatase activity, and glutathione content (P < 0.05). Additionally, it increased the level of reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde in a dose-dependent way, which could be partly recompensated by adding an antioxidant (N-acetyl-cysteine). They concluded that T-2 toxin inhibits the proliferation and differentiation of GPCs and contributes, therefore, to the development of TD, altering cellular homeostasis. Antioxidants may help to reduce these effects.

Gu et al. (2023) investigated the closely bodyweight-related shank length and the tibia development in Yangzhou goslings fed feed with six different levels (0 to 2.0 mg/kg) of T-2 toxin for 21 days. They determined a clear dose-dependent slowed tibial length and weight growth (p<0.05), as well as abnormal morphological structures in the tibial growth plate. As tibial growth and shank length are closely related to weight gain (Gu et al., 2023; Gao et al., 2010; Ukwu et al., 2014; Yu et al., 2022), their slowdown indicates lower growth performance.

Fumonisin B1 is also a potential cause of this kind of leg issue. Feeding 100 and 200 mg/kg to day-old turkey poults for 21 days led to the development of TD (Weibking et al., 1993). Possible explanations are the reduced viability of chondrocytes, as found by Chu et al. (1995) after 48 h of exposure, or the toxicity of FB1 to splenocytes and chondrocytes, which was shown in different primary cell cultures from chicken (Wu et al., 1995).

Bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis lameness (BCO) can be triggered by DON and FUM

BCO presents a highly critical health and welfare issue in broiler production worldwide, and it is estimated that 1-2 % of condemnations in birds at the marketing age result from this disease. What is the reason? Today’s fast-growing broilers are susceptible to stress. This enables pathogenic bacteria to compromise epithelial barriers, translocate from the gastrointestinal tract or the pulmonary system into the bloodstream, and colonize osteochondrotic microfractures in the growth plate of the long bone. This can lead to bone necrosis and subsequent lameness.

In their experiment with DON and FUM in broilers, Alharbi et al. (2024) showed that these mycotoxins reduce the gut’s barrier strength and trigger immunosuppressive effects. They used contaminations of 0.76, 1.04, 0.94, and 0.93 mg DON/kg of feed and 2.40, 3.40, 3.20, and 3.50 mg FUM/kg diet in the starter, grower, finisher, and withdrawal phases, respectively. The team observed lameness on day 35; the mycotoxin groups always showed a significantly (P<0.05) higher incidence of cumulative lameness.

The increase in uric acid leads to gout

In general, mycotoxins, which damage the kidneys and, therefore, impact the renal excretion of uric acid, are potentially a factor for gout appearance.

One of these mycotoxins is T-2 toxin. With the trial mentioned before (Yangzhou goslings, 21 days of exposure), Gu et al. (2023) showed that the highest dosage of the toxin (2.0 mg/kg) significantly increased uric acid in the blood (P<0.05), possibly leading to the deposit of uric acid crystals in the joints and to gout.

Huff et al. (1975) applied Ochratoxin to chicks at 0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, and 8.0 µg/g of feed during the first three weeks of life. They found ochratoxin A as a severe nephrotoxin in young broilers as it caused damage to the kidneys with doses of 1.0 µg/g and higher. At 4.0 and 8.0 µg/g doses, uric acid increased by 38 and 48%, respectively (see Figure 2). Page et al. (1980) also reported increased uric acid after feeding 0.5 or 1.0 mg/kg of Ochratoxin A to adult white Leghorn chickens.

Figure 2: Effect of Ochratoxin A on plasma uric acid (mg/100 ml) (according to Huff et al., 1975)

Foot pad lesions – a further hint of mycotoxicosis

Foot pad lesions often result from wet litter, originating from diarrhea due to harmed gut integrity. Frequently, mycotoxins impact the intestinal tract and create ideal conditions for the proliferation of diarrhea-causing microorganisms and, therefore, secondary infections. Some also negatively impact the immune defense system, allowing pathogens to settle down or aggravate existing bacterial or viral parasitic diseases. In general, mycotoxins affect the physical (intestinal cell proliferation, cell viability, cell apoptosis), chemical (mucins, AMPs), immunological, and microbial barriers of the gut, as reported by Gao et al. (2020). Here are some examples of the adverse effects of mycotoxins leading to intestinal disorders and diarrhea:

• Mycotoxins can modulate intestinal epithelial integrity and the renewal and repair of epithelial cells, negatively impacting the intestinal barrier’s intrinsic components; for instance, DON can significantly reduce the transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER)(Grenier and Applegate, 2013). A higher permeability of the epithelium and a decreased absorption of dietary proteins can lead to higher protein in the digesta in the small intestine, which serves as a nutrient for pathogens including perfringens (Antonissen et al., 2014; Antonissen et al., 2015).
• The application of Ochratoxin A (3 mg/kg) increased the number of S. typhimurium in the duodenum and ceca of White Leghorn chickens (Fukata et al., 1996). Another trial with broiler chicks at a concentration of 2 mg/kg aggravated the symptoms due to an infection by S. gallinarum (Gupta et al., 2005).
• In a trial by Grenier et al., 2016, feed contaminated with DON (1.5 mg/kg), Fumonisin B (20 mg/kg), or both mycotoxins aggravated lesions caused by coccidia.
• DON impacts the mucus layer composition by downregulating the expression of the gene coding for MUC2, as shown in a trial with human goblet cells (Pinton et al., 2015). The mucus layer prevents pathogenic bacteria in the intestinal lumen from contacting the intestinal epithelium (McGuckin et al., 2011).
• Furthermore, DON and other mycotoxins decrease the populations of lactic acid-producing bacteria, indicating a shift in the microbial balance (Antonissen et al., 2016).
• FB1 causes intestinal disturbances such as diarrhea, although it is poorly absorbed in the intestine. According to Bouhet and Oswald (2007), the main toxicological effect ascertained in vivo and in vitro is the accumulation of sphingoid bases associated with the depletion of complex sphingolipids. This negative impact on the sphingolipid biosynthesis pathway could explain other adverse effects, such as reduced intestinal epithelial cell viability and proliferation, modification of cytokine production, and impairment of intestinal physical barrier function.
• T-2 toxin can disrupt the immune response, enhance the proliferation of coli in the gut, and increase its efflux (Zhang et al., 2022).

All these mycotoxins can cause foot pad lesions by impacting gut integrity or damaging the gut mucosa. They promote pathogenic organisms and, thus, provoke diarrhea and wet litter.

Mitigating the negative impact of mycotoxins on bones and feet is crucial for performance

Healthy bones and feet are essential for animal welfare and performance. Mycotoxins can be obstructive. Consequently, the first step to protecting your animals is to monitor their feed. If the analyses show the occurrence of mycotoxins at risky levels, proactive measures must be taken to mitigate the issues and ensure the health and productivity of your poultry.

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Raju, M.V.L.N., and G. Devegowda. “Influence of Esterified-Glucomannan on Performance and Organ Morphology, Serum Biochemistry and Haematology in Broilers Exposed to Individual and Combined Mycotoxicosis (Aflatoxin, Ochratoxin and T-2 Toxin).” British Poultry Science 41, no. 5 (December 2000): 640–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/713654986.

Rath, Narayan C., and Vijay Durairaj. “Avian Bone Physiology and Poultry Bone Disorders.” Sturkie’s Avian Physiology, 2022, 549–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-819770-7.00037-2.

Siller, W.G. “Renal Pathology of the Fowl — a Review.” Avian Pathology 10, no. 3 (July 1981): 187–262. https://doi.org/10.1080/03079458108418474.

Suchacki, Karla J, Fiona Roberts, Andrea Lovdel, Colin Farquharson, Nik M Morton, Vicky E MacRae, and William P Cawthorn. “Skeletal Energy Homeostasis: A Paradigm of Endocrine Discovery.” Journal of Endocrinology 234, no. 1 (July 2017). https://doi.org/10.1530/joe-17-0147.

Tran, Si-Trung, Y. Ruangpanit, K. Rassmidatta, K. Pongmanee, K. Palanisamy, and M. Caballero. “The World Mycotoxin Forum, 14th Conference.” In WMF Meets Belgium – Abstracts of Lectures and Posters, 120–21. Antwerp: Conference Secretariat Bastiaanse Communication, 2023.

Ukwu, H.O, V.M.O. Okoro, and R.J. Nosike. “Statistical Modelling of Body Weight and Linear Body Measurements in Nigerian Indigenous Chicken.” IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS), Ver. V, 7, no. 1 (2014): 27–30.

Wright, G.C., Walter F.O. Marasas, and Leon Sokoloff. “Effect of Fusarochromanone and T-2 Toxin on Articular Chondrocytes in Monolayer Culture in Monolayer Culture.” Toxicological Sciences 9, no. 3 (1987): 595–97. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/9.3.595.

Wu, Weidong, Mark E. Cook, Qili Chu, and Eugene B. Smalley. “Tibial Dyschondroplasia of Chickens Induced by Fusarochromanone, a Mycotoxin.” Avian Diseases 37, no. 2 (April 1993): 302. https://doi.org/10.2307/1591653.

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Zhao, J., R.B. Shirley, J.D. Dibner, F. Uraizee, M. Officer, M. Kitchell, M. Vazquez-Anon, and C.D. Knight. “Comparison of Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminosilicate and Yeast Cell Wall on Counteracting Aflatoxicosis in Broiler Chicks.” Poultry Science 89, no. 10 (October 2010): 2147–56. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2009-00608.

by Madalina Diaconu, Global Manager Gut Health, EW Nutrition

Coccidiosis, caused by Eimeria spp., is a major challenge in poultry production, leading to significant economic losses. Historically, control strategies have relied on chemical anticoccidials and ionophores. However, the emergence of drug-resistant Eimeria strains and consumer concerns about chemical residues necessitate alternative solutions. Phytogenics, especially tannins and saponins, offer promising natural solutions to be included in programs for coccidiosis control. More and more independent research highlights the potential of these natural compounds to enhance poultry health and productivity.

Efficacy of Tannins and Saponins in Coccidiosis Control

Phytogenics are plant-derived bioactive compounds known for their antimicrobial, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties. Among these, tannins and saponins have shown particular promise in supporting coccidiosis control.

The challenge: Preventing the spread of infections and mitigating subclinicial coccidiosis before it reaches this stage.

Tannins

Tannins are polyphenolic compounds found in various plants. They exhibit strong antimicrobial activity by binding to proteins and metal ions, disrupting microbial cell membranes, and inhibiting enzymatic activity.

Anticoccidial Activity: Tannins have been shown to interfere with the life cycle of Eimeria. Studies demonstrate that tannins can reduce oocyst shedding and intestinal lesion scores in infected birds (Abbas et al., 2017).

Immune Modulation: Tannins enhance immune responses by promoting the proliferation of lymphocytes and the production of antibodies, which help in the clearance of Eimeria infections (Redondo et al., 2021).

Saponins

Saponins are glycosides with surfactant properties, capable of lysing cell membranes of pathogens. They also stimulate immune responses, enhancing the host’s ability to fight infections.

Membrane Disruption: Saponins disrupt the cell membranes of Eimeria, leading to reduced parasite viability and replication (Githiori et al., 2004).

Immune Enhancement: Saponins stimulate the production of cytokines and enhance the activity of macrophages, improving the overall immune response against coccidiosis (Zhai et al., 2014).

Independent Research Evidences Phytogenics’s Role in Supporting Programs for Coccidiosis Control

Numerous studies have evaluated the efficacy of phytogenics in coccidiosis control. Here, we highlight key findings from peer-reviewed research:

Abbas et al. (2012): This study reviewed various botanicals and their effects on Eimeria species in poultry. The authors concluded that tannins and saponins significantly reduce oocyst shedding and lesion scores, comparable to conventional anticoccidials.

Allen et al. (1997): The authors investigated the use of dietary saponins in controlling Eimeria acervulina infections. The study found that saponin-treated birds exhibited lower oocyst counts and improved weight gain compared to untreated controls.

Masood et al. (2013): This study explored the role of natural antioxidants, including tannins, in controlling coccidiosis. The results indicated that tannins reduced oxidative stress and improved intestinal health, leading to better performance in broiler chickens.

Idris et al. (2017): The researchers assessed the potential of saponin-rich plant extracts against avian coccidiosis. The findings demonstrated significant reductions in oocyst output and lesion severity, highlighting the potential of saponins as effective anticoccidials.

Hailat et al. (2023): The researchers studied three phytogenic formulations against a control group with chemical drugs. The study concluded that phytogenic blends can be safely used as alternatives to the chemically synthesized drugs, either alone or in a shuttle program, for the control of poultry coccidiosis.

El-Shall et al. (2021): This review article highlights research findings on phytogenic compounds which showed preventive, therapeutic, or immuno-modulating effects against coccidiosis.

Despite initial skepticism, the growing body of evidence supports the efficacy of phytogenics in supporting coccidiosis control. Tannins and saponins, in particular, have shown significant potential in reducing parasite load, improving intestinal health, and enhancing immune responses. These natural compounds offer several advantages over traditional chemical treatments, including lower risk of resistance development and absence of harmful residues in meat products.

Challenges and Promises

While the efficacy of phytogenics is well-supported, challenges remain, especially with lower-quality products that may display variability in plant extract composition, in their standardization of doses, and in ensuring consistent quality. At the same time, these compounds are not silver bullets, and no producer should make unreasonable claims.

As far as the mode of action is concerned, the evidence is becoming clear: phytogenics, particularly tannins and saponins, are effective in mitigating gut health challenges and supporting bird performance when challenged. Their natural origin, coupled with potent antimicrobial and immunomodulatory properties, makes them suitable for sustainable poultry production. As the poultry industry seeks to reduce reliance on chemical drugs, phytogenics represent a viable and promising solution.

References

Abbas, R. Z., Iqbal, Z., Blake, D., Khan, M. N., & Saleemi, M. K. (2011). “Anticoccidial drug resistance in fowl coccidia: the state of play revisited”. World’s Poultry Science Journal, 67(2), 337-350. https://doi.org/10.1017/S004393391100033X

Allen, P. C., Danforth, H. D., & Levander, O. A. (1997). “Interaction of dietary flaxseed with coccidia infections in chickens”. Poultry Science, 76(6), 822-828. https://doi.org/10.1093/ps/76.6.822

El-Shall, N.A., El-Hack, M.E.A., et al. (2022). “Phytochemical control of poultry coccidiosis: a review”. Poultry Science, 101(1) 101542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2021.101542

Idris, M., Abbas, R. Z., Masood, S., Rehman, T., Farooq, U., Babar, W., Hussain, R., Raza, A., & Riaz, U. (2017). “The potential of antioxidant rich essential oils against avian coccidiosis”. World’s Poultry Science Journal, 73(1), 89-104. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043933916000787

Hailat, A.M., Abdelqader, A.M., & Gharaibeh, M.H. (2023). “Efficacy of Phyto-Genic Products to Control Field Coccidiosis in Broiler Chickens”. International Journal of Veterinary Science, 13(3), 266-272. https://doi.org/10.47278/journal.ijvs/2023.099

Masood, S., Abbas, R. Z., Iqbal, Z., Mansoor, M. K., Sindhu, Z. U. D., & Zia, M. A. (2013). “Role of natural antioxidants for the control of coccidiosis in poultry”. Pakistan Veterinary Journal, 33(4), 401-407.

Redondo, L. M., Chacana, P. A., Dominguez, J. E., & Miyakawa, M. E. (2021). “Perspectives in the use of tannins as alternative to antimicrobial growth promoter factors in poultry”. Frontiers in Microbiology, 12, 641949. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.641949

Zhai, H., Liu, H., Wang, S., Wu, J., & Kluenter, A. M. (2014). “Potential of essential oils for poultry and pigs”. Animal Nutrition, 2(4), 196-202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aninu.2016.12.004

Part 2: Beak/mouth lesions

by Marisabel Caballero and Inge Heinzl, EW Nutrition

The second part of this series will focus on oral lesions as signs of mycotoxin exposure. In this segment, we will delve into the appearance and development of oral lesions, their specific locations based on the type of mycotoxin, and how toxin levels and duration of exposure impact these lesions.

A bit of history: oral lesions in poultry and their association with mycotoxin exposure

Exposure to trichothecenes, a specific group of mycotoxins that includes T-2 toxin and scirpenols- such as monoacetoxyscirpenol (MAS), diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), and triacetoxyscirpenol, has been associated with oral lesions since the early studies related with mycotoxins:

• After reports of toxicosis in farm animals, Bamburg’s group (1968) aimed to isolate the toxins produced by Fusarium tricintum, then considered the most toxic fungus found in moldy corn in Wisconsin (USA). Their experiments led to the discovery of the T-2 toxin, named after the strain of F. tricintum from which it was isolated. Today, we know that this fungus was wrongly identified; it was F. sporotrichioides (Marasas et al., 1984). However, the toxin remained known as T-2.
• Wyatt’s group (1972) already described yellowish-white lesions in the oral cavity of commercial broilers in a case report from 1972. The birds also presented lesions on the feet, shanks, and heads, which raised the possibility of contact with the toxin from the litter.
• In some of the earliest experimental works regarding T-2 toxin in poultry, Christensen (1972) noted the development of oral necrosis in turkey poults consuming increasing levels of feed invaded by tricintum; also Wyatt (1972) found a linear increase in lesion size and severity with increasing toxin concentrations of T-2 in broilers, starting with 1 ppm. He noted that oral lesions occurred without exception in all birds receiving T-2 toxin.
• Later, Chi and co-workers (1977) tested what later were considered sub-acute levels of T-2 in broiler chickens, finding oral lesions from 0.4 ppm after 5 to 6 weeks of exposure. At higher levels, the lesions appeared after two weeks. In the same year, Speers’ group (1977) concluded that adult laying hens are more tolerant to T-2 than young chicks and also found that another mycotoxin can produce oral lesions in poultry: monoacetoxyscirpenol (MAS).
• Fast forward, scientific research continued and the effects of T-2 and scirpenols, either alone or in combinations, on performance and oral lesions in poultry are today well known, as studied by Kubena et al. (1989), Ademoyero & Hamilton (1991), Kubena et al. (1994), Diaz et al. (1994), Brake et al. (2000), Schuhmacher-Wolz et al. (2010), Verma & Swamy (2015), Vaccari (2017), and reviewed by Sokolovic et al. (2008), Minafra et al. (2018), Puvača & Ljubojević Pelić (2023), and Vörösházi et al. (2024).

What are oral lesions and how do they develop?

Oral lesions caused by feed contaminated by T-2 toxin or scirpenols first occur as yellow plaques that develop into raised yellowish-gray crusts with covered ulcers (Hoerr et al., 1982). They also have been described as white in color and sometimes caseous in nature, as well as round and small, pin-point-sized, or large sheets covering a wider part of the mouth (Wyatt et al., 1972; Ademoyero and Hamilton, 1991).

Under the microscope, the lesions show a fibrinous surface layer and intermediate layers with invaginations full of rods and cocci, suggesting that the surrounding microbiota quickly colonizes the lesion. Inflammation immediately ensues as Wyatt’s team (1972) found the underlying tissues filled with granular leukocytes.

Why do T-2 toxins and other trichothecenes cause such lesions?

T-2 toxin and other trichothecenes are known for their caustic nature (evidenced by studies of Chi and Mirocha, 1978; Marasas et al., 1969), and for incidents involving accidental exposure by laboratory personnel (Bamburg et al., 1968, cited in Wyatt et al., 1972).

Induction of necrosis has been proposed as the main toxicity effect based on in vitro experiments on human skin fibroblast models. The findings were a reduction of ATP production in the cell line together with disruption of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) but without an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) or activity of caspase-3 and caspase-7, which would be the case for apoptosis (Janik-Karpinsa et al., 2022). A further study (Janik-Karpinsa et al., 2023) found that T-2, on the same cell line, reduced the number of mtDNA copies, damaging several genes and hindering its function; consequently, ATP production is inhibited, and cell necrosis ensues.

Meanwhile, an inflammatory response is triggered, and the lesions are colonized by the surrounding microbial flora (Wyatt et al., 1972). Supporting this notion, Hoerr et al. (1981) observed no mouth lesions after directly administering toxins via crop gavage. Enterohepatic recirculation, facilitating the return of toxins to the oral cavity through saliva, can amplify their toxic effects (Leeson et al., 1995).

Oral lesions depend on…

…the toxin

Oral lesions vary depending on the type of toxin involved. The location of lesions is influenced by the specific mycotoxin in the feed. For instance, research by Wyatt et al. (1972) revealed that with T-2 toxin, lesions initially manifest on the hard palate and along the tongue’s margins. Over two weeks, these lesions progress to affect the lingual papillae at the tongue’s root, the underside of the tongue, and the inner side of the lower beak near the midline.

In contrast, Ademoyero and Hamilton (1991) found that scirpenols present a different pattern. A study including 4 mycotoxins at 5 different levels found, after three weeks of exposure, that the lesions caused by triacetoxyscirpenol (TAS) predominantly occurred in the angles of the mouth (53% of the birds in the study), sparing the tongue. On the other hand, diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) primarily induces lesions inside the upper beak (shown 47% of the broilers), followed by the inside of the lower beak (in 32% of the birds). The lesion distribution for scirpentriol mirrors that of TAS, while monoacetoxyscirpenol (MAS) resembles DAS in its impact.

Chi and Mirocha (1978) conducted a comparative analysis of lesions caused by T-2 toxin and DAS (both 5 ppm). They observed that the severity of DAS-induced lesions was higher, leading to difficulties in mouth closure for some chicks due to encrustations in the mouth angles.

…the contamination level

Different findings regarding the dose dependency of the lesions are available. Wyatt et al. (1972) (Figure 1) showed a relationship between the lesion size and the toxin level. A clear relationship between the severity and incidence of lesions and the amount of T-2 toxin was also demonstrated by Chi et al. (1977) and Speers et al. (1976). This linear relationship in the case of T-2 toxin could be confirmed for the scirpenols TAS, STO, MAS, and DAS by Ademoyero and Hamilton (1991). They demonstrated a distinct dose-response relationship in a trial with the scirpenols STO, TAS (at 5 levels between 0-8 µg/g), MAS, and DAS (at 5 levels between 0-4 µg/g).

 

Sklan et al. (2001) tested T-2 toxin at more likely levels (0, 110, 530, and 1,050 ppb) in male chickens and found lesions in 90% of the chickens fed 500 ppb T-2 and in 100% of the ones fed 1,000 ppb of T-2 after 10 to 15 days; the higher dosage provoked the lesions of higher severity. When feeding 100 ppb of T-2, mild lesions appeared in 40% of the chickens after 25 and 35 days. Another group led by Sklan (2003) studied four groups of 12 one-day-old male turkey poults fed mash diets with 0 (control), 241, 485, or 982 ppb T-2 toxin for 32/33 days. Feed intake and feed efficiency were not affected, but oral lesions were apparent on day 7. The severity of the lesions plateaued after 7–15 days, and the lesion score was dose-related (see Figure 2). In the same trial, they also tested DAS (0, 223, 429, or 860 ppb) and found a similar dose relationship.

Figure 2: Lesion scores in poults fed T-2 toxin at different inclusion rates and lengths of exposure (Sklan et al., 2003)

A different result is found in the trial conducted by Hoerr et al. (1982), who observed lesions 2-4 days after initiating toxin exposure (T-2 toxin and DAS; 4 and 16 ppm for 21 days) and comparable lesions when feeding 50, 100, or 300 ppm of the same toxins for 7 days. They asserted that the toxin concentration did not influence the time to onset of lesions nor their severity. Most research, however, shows a clear dose-response relation.

…the duration of exposure

On one hand, chronic exposure to low levels of toxins often requires a specific duration before noticeable effects emerge. And on the other hand, symptoms may also diminish due to hormesis, an adaptive response of the organism to moderate, intermittent stress.

With high toxin levels, lesions appear very soon after exposure. For example, Diaz et al. (1994) exposed hens to a diet containing 2 mg DAS/kg feed, finding lesions in 40% of the birds after only 48 h of exposure. Chi and Mirocha (1978) noted lesions after five days with a T-2 level of 5 ppm. At a comparable level (4 ppm), Chi et al. (1977) reported lesions emerging in the second week of exposure, with nearly 75% of chicks experiencing oral lesions by the third week. Sklan et al. (2003) saw lesions already on day 7 when feeding T-2 toxin or DAS at 1 ppm.

When testing lower levels (200 ppb), Sklan et al. (2001) found lesions after 10 days. They became more severe after 15 to 20 days and then, their severity decreased. Hoerr et al. (1982) also confirmed this by reporting that the number and size of the lesions increased until day 14 but decreased thereafter. Both studies confirm the phenomenon of hormesis.

… animal factors

In general, lesions appear with lower levels of toxins in broilers compared with layers and in layers compared with breeders. Turkeys are also less sensitive than broilers (Puvača & Ljubojević Pelić (2023).

Age also has an influence: young birds usually still have a maturing immune system, and the detoxification processes might not be entirely in place. However, their feed intake is lower and for this reason, in studies like Wang and Hogan (2019), higher impact of mycotoxins is found in older chicks.

Furthermore, additional stress factors influence the impact of mycotoxins in animals. Stress factors are cumulative and, when different factors concur, the severity of mycotoxin effects can increase.

Are oral lesions key indicators for implementing effective toxin risk management?

Oral lesions are painful for the animals, distract them from eating, and deteriorate growth performance. Often they are related with mycotoxins; however, when they appear, an investigation of different factors should take place, including mycotoxin analysis, as oral lesions may have other causes. Some of the known causes of oral lesions in poultry are also very fine feed particle size, deficiency of Vitamins A, E, B6 and Biotin, excessive levels of copper sulphate, and some parasite infections.

This article aimed to help with the differential diagnosis by providing a summary of the knowledge we have about the type and shape of the lesions related to mycotoxin contamination, which can help on a differential diagnosis. Checking the feed for mycotoxins and implementing effective toxin management helps prevent their negative effects, keeps the animals healthy, and contributes to animal welfare and, consequently, performance.

 

References

Ademoyero, Adedamola A., and Pat B. Hamilton. “Mouth Lesions in Broiler Chickens Caused by Scirpenol Mycotoxins.” Poultry Science 70, no. 10 (October 1991): 2082–89. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.0702082.

Bamburg, J.R., N.V. Riggs, and F.M. Strong. “The Structures of Toxins from Two Strains of Fusarium Tricinctum.” Tetrahedron 24, no. 8 (January 1968): 3329–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0040-4020(01)92631-6.

Bamburg, J.R., N.V. Riggs, and F.M. Strong. “The Structures of Toxins from Two Strains of Fusarium Tricinctum.” Tetrahedron 24, no. 8 (January 1968): 3329–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0040-4020(01)92631-6.

Brake, J., P.B. Hamilton, and R.S. Kittrell. “Effects of the Trichothecene Mycotoxin Diacetoxyscirpenol on Feed Consumption, Body Weight, and Oral Lesions of Broiler Breeders.” Poultry Science 79, no. 6 (June 2000): 856–63. https://doi.org/10.1093/ps/79.6.856.

Chi, M.S., and C.J. Mirocha. “Necrotic Oral Lesions in Chickens Fed Diacetoxyscirpenol, T—2 Toxin, and Crotocin.” Poultry Science 57, no. 3 (May 1978): 807–8. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.0570807.

Chi, M.S., C.J. Mirocha, H.J. Kurtz, G. Weaver, F. Bates, and W. Shimoda. “Subacute Toxicity of T-2 Toxin in Broiler Chicks ,.” Poultry Science 56, no. 1 (January 1977): 306–13. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.0560306.

Christensen, C. M., R. A. Meronuck, G. H. Nelson, and J. C. Behrens. “Effects on Turkey Poults of Rations Containing Corn Invaded by            Fusarium Tricinctum            (CDA.) Sny. &amp; Hans.” Applied Microbiology 23, no. 1 (January 1972): 177–79. https://doi.org/10.1128/am.23.1.177-179.1972.

Diaz, G. J., E. J. Squires, R. J. Julian, and H. J. Boermans. “Individual and Combined Effects of T‐2 Toxin and Das in Laying Hens.” British Poultry Science 35, no. 3 (July 1994): 393–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071669408417704.

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Hoerr, F, W Carlton, B Yagen, and A Joffe. “Mycotoxicosis Caused by Either T-2 Toxin or Diacetoxyscirpenol in the Diet of Broiler Chickens.” Fundamental and Applied Toxicology 2, no. 3 (May 1982): 121–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-0590(82)80092-4.

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Sklan, D., M. Shelly, B. Makovsky, A. Geyra, E. Klipper, and A. Friedman. “The Effect of Chronic Feeding of Diacetoxyscirpenol and T-2 Toxin on Performance, Health, Small Intestinal Physiology and Antibody Production in Turkey Poults.” British Poultry Science 44, no. 1 (March 2003): 46–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/0007166031000085373.

Sokolović, Marijana, Verica Garaj-Vrhovac, and Borka ŠImpraga. “T-2 Toxin: Incidence and Toxicity in Poultry.” Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology 59, no. 1 (March 1, 2008): 43–52. https://doi.org/10.2478/10004-1254-59-2008-1843.

Speers, G.M., C.J. Mirocha, C.M. Christensen, and J.C. Behrens. “Effects on Laying Hens of Feeding Corn Invaded by Two Species of Fusarium and Pure T-2 Mycotoxin ,.” Poultry Science 56, no. 1 (January 1977): 98–102. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.0560098.

Verma, Yamini, and Madhu Swamy. “Clinico-Pathological Effect of FeedingFusarium Sporotrichioidesand t-2 Toxin Contaminated Diet in Broiler Chicken.” Indian Journal of Veterinary Pathology 39, no. 1 (2015): 58. https://doi.org/10.5958/0973-970x.2015.00013.9.

Vörösházi, Júlia, Zsuzsanna Neogrády, Gábor Mátis, and Máté Mackei. “Pathological Consequences, Metabolism and Toxic Effects of Trichothecene T-2 Toxin in Poultry.” Poultry Science 103, no. 3 (March 2024): 103471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2024.103471.

Wyatt, R. D., B. A. Weeks, P. B. Hamilton, and H. R. Burmeister. “Severe Oral Lesions in Chickens Caused by Ingestion of Dietary Fusariotoxin T-21.” Applied Microbiology 24, no. 2 (1972): 251–57. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.24.2.251-257.1972.

Wyatt, R. D., J. R. Harris, P. B. Hamilton, and H. R. Burmeister. “Possible Outbreaks of Fusariotoxicosis in Avians.” Avian Diseases 16, no. 5 (October 1972): 1123. https://doi.org/10.2307/1588839.

Author: Ajay Bhoyar, Global Technical Manager, EW Nutrition

Exogenous feed enzymes are increasingly utilized in poultry diets to manage feed costs, mitigate the adverse effects of anti-nutritional factors, and enhance nutrient digestion and bird performance. These enzymes are primarily employed to bolster the availability of nutrients within feed ingredients. Among the various enzymes utilized, those capable of breaking down crude fiber, starch, proteins, and phytates are commonly integrated into animal production systems.

In monogastric animals such as poultry and swine, a notable deficiency exists in the endogenous synthesis of enzymes necessary for the hydrolysis of non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs) like xylan (McLoughlin et al., 2017). This deficiency often manifests in poultry production as a decline in growth performance, attributed to increased digesta viscosity arising from the prevalence of NSPs in commonly utilized poultry feed ingredients. Without sufficient endogenous enzymes to degrade xylan, NSPs can increase digesta viscosity, encase essential nutrients, and create a barrier to their effective digestion. In response to this issue, monogastric animal producers have implemented exogenous enzymes such as xylanases into the feeds for swine and poultry to degrade xylan to short-chain sugars, thus reducing intestinal viscosity and improving the digestive utilization of nutrients (Sakata et al., 1995; Aragon et al., 2018)

Understanding Xylanase Enzymes

Xylanase enzymes belong to the class of carbohydrases that specifically target complex polysaccharides, such as xylan, a backbone nonstarch polysaccharide (NSP) prevalent in plant cell walls. These enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of xylan into smaller, more digestible fragments, such as arabino–xylo-oligosaccharides (AXOs) and xylo-oligosaccharides (XOs), thereby facilitating the breakdown of dietary fiber in poultry diets.

Mechanism of action

It is generally agreed that the beneficial effects of feed xylanase are primarily due to the reduction in viscosity. Studies have shown that supplementing xylanases to animal feeds reduces digesta viscosity and releases encapsulated nutrients, thus improving the overall feed digestibility and nutrient availability (Matthiesen et al., 2021). The reduction in digesta viscosity by adding xylanase is achieved by the partial hydrolysis of NSPs in the upper digestive tract, leading to a decrease in digesta viscosity in the small intestine (Choct & Annison, 1992).

GH10 vs. GH11 Xylanases

Well-characterized xylanases are mostly grouped into glycoside hydrolase families 10 (GH10) and 11 (GH11) based on their structural characteristics (amino acid composition), mode of xylan degradation, the similarity of catalytic domains, substrate specificities, optimal conditions, thermostability, and practical applications.

Why are GH10 xylanases more efficient in animal production?

While both GH10 and GH11 xylanases act on the xylan main chain, these two enzyme types have different folds, substrate specificities, and mechanisms of action (Biely et al., 2016). The GH10 xylanases are more beneficial in animal feed production due to their efficient mechanism of action, broader substrate specificity, and better thermostability, as discussed below.

GH10 xylanase exhibits broader substrate specificity

Generally, the GH10 xylanases exhibit broader substrate specificity and can hydrolyze various forms of xylan, including soluble and insoluble substrates. On the other hand, GH11 xylanases have a narrower substrate specificity and are primarily active on soluble xylan substrates. GH10 xylanases exhibit higher catalytic versatility and can catalyze the cleavage of the xylan backbone at the nonreducing side of substituted xylose residues, whereas GH11 enzymes require unsubstituted regions of the xylan backbone (Collins et al., 2005; Chakdar et al., 2016).

As a result, GH10 xylanases generally produce shorter xylo-oligosaccharides than members of the GH11 family (Collins et al., 2005). Moreover, as shown in Fig.1, the GH10 xylanase can rapidly and effectively break down xylan molecules.

Fig.1.: Activity of a bacterial GH10 xylanase against soluble and insoluble arabinoxylans

Higher thermostability

Enzymes are proteins, and the protein’s primary structure determines their thermostability. The enzyme protein tends to denature at higher than tolerable temperatures, rendering it inactive. An enzyme’s high-temperature tolerance ensures its efficacy throughout the pelleted feed manufacturing. This results in consistent enzyme activity in the finished feed, subsequent gut health, and predictable performance benefits.

Xylanases with higher thermostability are more suitable for applications requiring high-temperature processes. An intrinsically heat-stable bacterial xylanase maintains its activity even under high-temperature feed processing conditions, such as pelleting.

A study conducted at the University of Novi Sad, Serbia (Fig. 2), with three pelleting temperatures (85 °C, 90 °C, and 95 °C) and conditioning times of 4 and 6 mins, showed that Axxess XY, an intrinsically thermostable GH10 xylanase, demonstrated more than 85% recovery even at 4 to 6 mins conditioning time and 95 °C temperature.

Fig.2: Optimum recovery of Axxess XY at elevated conditioning time and temperatures

Maintaining consistently optimum enzyme activity is crucial for realizing the benefits of enzyme inclusion in feed under challenging feed processing conditions.

Conclusion

In conclusion, exogenous feed enzymes, including xylanase, have gained widespread recognition for their pivotal role in poultry nutrition. The increasing use of xylanase is attributed to its ability to effectively manage feed costs while incorporating high-fiber ingredients without compromising poultry performance. However, the efficacy of xylanase is based on several factors, including its mode of action, substrate specificity, catalytic efficacy, and thermostability. Selecting the appropriate xylanase enzyme tailored for specific needs is crucial to harnessing its full benefits.

A GH10 xylanase, such as Axxess XY, designed explicitly as a feed enzyme, offers distinct advantages in poultry production. Its efficient mechanism of action, broader substrate specificity, and superior thermostability make it a preferred choice for optimizing animal performance. Notably, Axxess XY exhibits exceptional activity against soluble and insoluble arabinoxylans, thereby enhancing nutrient utilization, promoting gut health, and ultimately elevating overall performance levels in poultry.

Incorporating specialized GH10 Xylanase enzymes like Axxess XY represents a strategic approach to unlocking the nutrients in feedstuffs, ensuring optimal performance, and maximizing profitability in the poultry business.

References

Aragon, Caio C., Ana I. Ruiz-Matute, Nieves Corzo, Rubens Monti, Jose M. Guisán, and Cesar Mateo. “Production of Xylo-Oligosaccharides (XOS) by Controlled Hydrolysis of Xylan Using Immobilized Xylanase from Aspergillus Niger with Improved Properties.” Integrative Food, Nutrition and Metabolism 5, no. 4 (2018). https://doi.org/10.15761/ifnm.1000225.

Bedford, Michael R., and Henry L. Classen. “Reduction of Intestinal Viscosity through Manipulation of Dietary Rye and Pentosanase Concentration Is Effected through Changes in the Carbohydrate Composition of the Intestinal Aqueous Phase and Results in Improved Growth Rate and Food Conversion Efficiency of Broiler Chicks.” The Journal of Nutrition 122, no. 3 (March 1992): 560–69. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/122.3.560.

Biely, Peter, Suren Singh, and Vladimír Puchart. “Towards Enzymatic Breakdown of Complex Plant Xylan Structures: State of the Art.” Biotechnology Advances 34, no. 7 (November 2016): 1260–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2016.09.001.

Chakdar, Hillol, Murugan Kumar, Kuppusamy Pandiyan, Arjun Singh, Karthikeyan Nanjappan, Prem Lal Kashyap, and Alok Kumar Srivastava. “Bacterial Xylanases: Biology to Biotechnology.” 3 Biotech 6, no. 2 (June 30, 2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-016-0457-z.

Choct, M., and G. Annison. “Anti‐nutritive Effect of Wheat Pentosans in Broiler Chickens: Roles of Viscosity and Gut Microflora.” British Poultry Science 33, no. 4 (September 1992): 821–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071669208417524.

Collins, Tony, Charles Gerday, and Georges Feller. “Xylanases, Xylanase Families and Extremophilic Xylanases.” FEMS Microbiology Reviews 29, no. 1 (January 2005): 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.femsre.2004.06.005.

Matthiesen, Connie F., Dan Pettersson, Adam Smith, Ninfa R. Pedersen, and Adam. C. Storm. “Exogenous Xylanase Improves Broiler Production Efficiency by Increasing Proximal Small Intestine Digestion of Crude Protein and Starch in Wheat-Based Diets of Various Viscosities.” Animal Feed Science and Technology 272 (February 2021): 114739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2020.114739.

McLoughlin, Rebecca F, Bronwyn S Berthon, Megan E Jensen, Katherine J Baines, and Lisa G Wood. “Short-Chain Fatty Acids, Prebiotics, Synbiotics, and Systemic Inflammation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 106, no. 3 (March 2017): 930–45. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.117.156265.

Sakata, T., M. Adachi, M. Hashida, N. Sato, and T. Kojima. “Effect of N-Butyric Acid on Epithelial Cell Proliferation of Pig Colonic Mucosa in Short-Term Culture.” DTW – Deutsche Tierärztliche Wochenschau 102, no. 4 (1995): 163–64.

By Dr. Ajay Bhoyar, Global Technical Manager, EW Nutrition

In modern, intensive poultry production, the imminent threat of resistant Eimeria looms large, posing a significant challenge to the sustainability of broiler operations. Eimeria spp., capable of developing resistance to our traditional interventions, has emerged as a pressing global issue for poultry operators. The resistance of Eimeria to conventional drugs, coupled with concerns over drug residue, has necessitated a shift towards natural, safe, and effective alternatives.

Several phytogenic compounds, including saponins, tannins, essential oils, flavonoids, alkaloids, and lectins, have been the subject of rigorous study for their anticoccidial properties. Among these, saponins and tannins in specific plants have emerged as powerful tools in the fight against these resilient protozoa. In the following, we delve into innovative strategies that leverage the potential of these compounds, particularly saponins and tannins, to prevent losses by mitigating the risk of resistant Eimeria in poultry production.

Understanding resistant Eimeria in broiler production

The World Health Organization Scientific Group (World Health Organization, 1965) developed the definition of resistance in broad terms as ‘the ability of a parasite strain to survive and/or to multiply despite the administration and absorption of a drug given in doses equal to or higher than those usually recommended but within the limits of tolerance of the subject’.

The high reproduction rate of Eimeria spp. allows them to evolve quickly and develop resistance to drugs used for their control. Moreover, the resistant strains of Eimeria can persist in the environment due to their ability to form resistant oocysts, leading to the re-infection of animals and further spread of resistant strains.

Resistant Eimeria strains present many challenges in modern poultry farming, significantly impacting overall productivity and economic sustainability. However, one of the primary challenges is the reduced efficacy of traditional anti-coccidial drugs.

Eimeria resistance occurs in different types

There are different possibilities as to why Eimeria are resistant to specific drugs.

Acquired resistance results from heritable decreases in the sensitivity of specific strains and species of Eimeria to drugs over time. There are two types of acquired resistance: partial and complete. These types depend upon the extent of sensitivity lost. There is a direct relationship between the concentration of the drug and the degree of resistance. A strain controlled by one drug dose may show resistance when a lower concentration of the same drug is administered.

Cross-resistance is the sharing of resistance among different compounds with similar modes of action (Abbas et al., 2011). This, however, may not always occur (Chapman, 1997).

Multiple resistance is resistance to more than one drug, even though they have different modes of action (Chapman, 1993).

Natural substances can bring back the efficacy of anticoccidial measures

It was found that if a drug to which the parasite has developed resistance is withdrawn from use for some time or combined with another effective drug, the sensitivity to that drug may return (Chapman, 1997).

Botanicals and natural identical compounds are well renowned for their antimicrobial and antiparasitic activity, so they can represent a valuable tool against Eimeria (Cobaxin-Cardenas, 2018). The mechanisms of action of these molecules include degradation of the cell wall, cytoplasm damage, ion loss with reduction of proton motive force, and induction of oxidative stress, which leads to inhibition of invasion and impairment of Eimeria spp. development (Abbas et al., 2012; Nazzaro et al., 2013). Natural anticoccidial products may provide a novel approach to controlling coccidiosis while meeting the urgent need for control due to the increasing emergence of drug-resistant parasite strains in commercial poultry production (Allen and Fetterer, 2002).

Saponins and Tannins: Nature’s Defense against Eimeria Challenge

Phytogenic solutions, specifically those based on saponins and tannins, have recently surfaced as promising alternatives to mitigate the Eimeria challenge in poultry production. By harnessing the power of these natural compounds, poultry producers can boost the resilience of their flocks against the Eimeria challenge, promoting both the birds’ welfare and the industry’s sustainability.

Saponins are glycosides found in many plants with distinctive soapy characteristics due to their ability to foam in water. In the context of Eimeria, saponins can disrupt the integrity of the parasites’ cell membranes. When consumed, saponins can interfere with the protective outer layer of Eimeria, weakening the parasite and rendering it vulnerable to the host’s immune responses. This disruption impedes the ability of Eimeria to attach to the intestinal lining and reproduce, effectively curtailing the infection.

Tannins are polyphenolic compounds with astringent properties, occurring in various plant parts, such as leaves, bark, and fruits. Choosing the proper tannin at the right level and time is crucial to realize the benefits of tannin-based feed additives.

In the context of Eimeria, tannins exhibit several mechanisms of action. Firstly, they bind to proteins within the parasites, disrupting their enzymatic activities and metabolic processes. This interference weakens Eimeria, hindering its ability to cause extensive damage to the intestinal lining. Secondly, tannins are anti-inflammatory, reducing the inflammation caused by Eimeria infections. Additionally, tannins act as antioxidants, protecting the intestinal cells from oxidative stress induced by the parasite.

When incorporated into broilers’ diets, saponins and tannins create an unfavorable environment for Eimeria, inhibiting their growth and propagation within the host. Moreover, these compounds fortify the broiler’s natural defenses, enhancing its ability to resist Eimeria infections. By leveraging the innate properties of saponins and tannins, the impact of resistant Eimeria strains can effectively be managed and mitigated, fostering healthier flocks and sustainable poultry production.

What is Pretect D?

Pretect D is a unique proprietary blend of phytomolecules, including saponins and tannins, that supports the control of coccidiosis challenges in poultry production. It can be used alone or in combination with coccidiosis vaccines, ionophores, and chemicals as part of a shuttle or rotation program.

Fig.1. Key active ingredients of Pretect D

Modes of action of Pretect D

Pretect D exhibits multiple modes of action to optimize gut health during challenging times. Due to its anti-protozoal, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant properties, it

1. effectively decreases oocyst excretion and disease spread
2. promotes restoring the mucosal barrier function and improves intestinal morphology
3. protects the intestinal epithelium from inflammatory and oxidative damage.

The beneficial effects of Pretect D

The beneficial effects of Pretect D’s inclusion in the coccidiosis control program include improving overall gut health and broiler production performance.

In a challenge study with Cobb 500 broiler chicks under a mixed Eimeria inoculum challenge, it was evident that the group receiving Pretect D (@500g/ton) in the feed throughout the 35-day rearing period had less coccidia-caused lesions (D27) than the broilers challenged and fed control diets.

Fig. 2: Pretect D reduced coccidia-caused lesions in broilers

In another field study, a traditional anticoccidial program (Starter and Grower I feeds: Narasin + Nicarbazin, Grower II feed: Salinomycin, Finisher/ withdrawal feeds: No anticoccidial) was compared with a program combining anticoccidials with Pretect D (Starter and Grower I feeds: Narasin + Nicarbazin, Grower II and Finisher feeds: Pretect D). The addition of Pretect D significantly reduced OPG count and lowered the coccidiosis lesion score compared to the control (Fig. 3).

Fig.3. Pretect D reduced broilers’ coccidiosis lesion score and OPG count

Consequently, broilers receiving Pretect D showed better overall production performance.

Fig. 4. Overall improved production performance by Pretect D

Pretect D: Application Strategies

The introduction of an effective phytogenic combination in the coccidiosis control program can help mitigate the drug resistance issue. Such a natural anticoccidial solution can be used as a standalone, preferably in less challenging months, as well as in combination with chemicals (shuttle/ rotation) or a coccidiosis vaccine (bio-shuttle), reducing the need for frequent drug use.

Shuttle programs are commonly employed for managing coccidiosis, and they yield a satisfactory level of success. Within these programs, multiple drugs from distinct classes of anticoccidials are administered throughout a single flock. For instance, one class of drug is utilized in the starter feed, another in the grower stage, reverting to the initial class for the finisher diet and concluding with a withdrawal period.

In rotation programs, anticoccidial drugs are alternated between batches rather than within a single batch.

Conclusions

Coccidiosis is considered one of the most economically significant diseases of poultry and the development of anticoccidial resistance has threatened the profitability of the broiler industry. Therefore, regularly monitoring Eimeria species to develop resistance against different anticoccidial groups is crucial to managing resistance and choosing an anticoccidial. It would be rewarding to use an effective phytogenic solution in the coccidiosis control program as a strategic and tactical measure and to focus on such integrated programs for drug resistance management in the future.

References:

Abbas, R.Z., D.D. Colwell, and J. Gilleard. “Botanicals: An Alternative Approach for the Control of Avian Coccidiosis.” World’s Poultry Science Journal 68, no. 2 (June 1, 2012): 203–15. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0043933912000268.

Abbas, R.Z., Z. Iqbal, D. Blake, M.N. Khan, and M.K. Saleemi. “Anticoccidial Drug Resistance in Fowl Coccidia: The State of Play Revisited.” World’s Poultry Science Journal 67, no. 2 (June 1, 2011): 337–50. https://doi.org/10.1017/s004393391100033x.

Allen, P. C., and R. H. Fetterer. “Recent Advances in Biology and Immunobiology ofEimeriaSpecies and in Diagnosis and Control of Infection with These Coccidian Parasites of Poultry.” Clinical Microbiology Reviews 15, no. 1 (January 2002): 58–65. https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.15.1.58-65.2002.

Chapman, H. D. “Biochemical, Genetic and Applied Aspects of Drug Resistance inEimeriaParasites of the Fowl.” Avian Pathology 26, no. 2 (June 1997): 221–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/03079459708419208.

Chapman, H.D. “Resistance to Anticoccidial Drugs in Fowl.” Parasitology Today 9, no. 5 (May 1993): 159–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-4758(93)90137-5.

Cobaxin-Cárdenas, Mayra E. “Natural Compounds as an Alternative to Control Farm Diseases: Avian Coccidiosis.” Farm Animals Diseases, Recent Omic Trends and New Strategies of Treatment, March 21, 2018. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72638.

Nazzaro, Filomena, Florinda Fratianni, Laura De Martino, Raffaele Coppola, and Vincenzo De Feo. “Effect of Essential Oils on Pathogenic Bacteria.” Pharmaceuticals 6, no. 12 (November 25, 2013): 1451–74. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph6121451.

Pop, Loredana Maria, Erzsébet Varga, Mircea Coroian, Maria E. Nedișan, Viorica Mircean, Mirabela Oana Dumitrache, Lénárd Farczádi, et al. “Efficacy of a Commercial Herbal Formula in Chicken Experimental Coccidiosis.” Parasites &amp; Vectors 12, no. 1 (July 12, 2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-019-3595-4.

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